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AGRICULTURAL  AND  BIOLOGICAL  PUBLICATIONS 
CHARLES  V.  PIPER,  Consulting  Editor 


VEGETABLE  CROPS 


McGRAW-HILL 

AGRICULTURAL  AND 

BIOLOGICAL  PUBLICATIONS 

Charles  V.  Piper,  Consulting  Editor 


Babcock  and  Clausen's — 

GENETICS  IN  RELATION  TO  AGRICULTURE 
Bahork  and  Collins'— 

GENETICS  LABORATORY  MANUAL 
Shull,  La  Rue  and  Rulhren's — 

PRINCIPLES  OF  ANIMAL  BIOLOGY 

Skull's— 

LABORATORY    DIRECTIONS    IN    PRINCIPLES     OF 
ANIMAL  BIOLOGY 
Thatrhrr's— 

CHEMISTRY  OF  PLANT  LIFE 
IIat/i'-i  and  Garher's — 

BREEDING  CROP  PLANTS 
Sharp's — 

AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  CYTOLOGY 

Fernald's — 

APPLIED  ENTOMOLOGY 


Gardner,  Bradford  and  Hunker's — 

FUNDAMENTALS  OF  FRUIT  PRODUCTION 
Crxi-ess  and  Christie's — 

LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  FRUIT  AND  VEGETABLE 
PRODUCTS 
Piper  nnil  Morse's — 

THE  SOYBEAN 

Carrier — 

THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  AGRICULTURE  IN  AMERICA 

Lohnis  and  Fred's — 

TEXTBOOK  OF  AGRICULTURAL  BACTERIOLOGY 
Thompson's — 

VEGETABLE  CROPS 

Sinnolt's — 

BOTANY :  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE 


VEGETABLE  CEOPS 


BY 

HOMER  C.  THOMPSON  B.  So. 

Professor   of   Vegetable  Garde nina,  New  York  State  CoUeye  df 

Agriculture,  Cornell  University.  Formerly  Horticulturist, 

United  States  Department  of  Agriculture 


First  Edition 


McGRAW-HILL  BOOK  COMPANY,  Inc. 
NEW  YORK:  370  SEVENTH  AVENUE 

LONDON:  6  &  8  BOUVERIE  ST.,  E.  C.  4 

1923 


Copyright,  1923,  by  the 
McGraw-Hill  Book  Company,  Inc. 

PRINTED    IN   THE    UNITED    STATES    OF   AMERICA 


IE     MAPLE     PRESS     -     YORK     PA 


PREFACE 

In  the  preparation  of  this  book  the  author  has  had  one  main  purpose; 
nanlely  to  meet  the  needs  of  college  and  university  teachers  of  vegetable 
gardening  for  a  textbook  which  brings  together  the  results  of  experimental 
and  research  work.  While  vegetable  gardening  has  been  given  less 
attention  by  scientific  workers  than  most  other  important  branches  of 
agriculture,  there  is  a  large  amount  of  experimental  evidence  available 
that  has  never  been  brought  together.  This  material  has  not  been  used 
by  vegetable  gardening  teachers  to  the  extent  that  it  should,  largely 
because  it  is  so  scattered  through  the  Hterature  of  the  past  forty  years. 
The  author  has  studied  the  hterature  and  has  attempted  to  give  the 
experimental  evidence  available  on  the  subjects  discussed.  On  many 
subjects  discussed  no  experimental  evidence  was  found,  and  in  these 
cases,  the  author  has  given  what  he  believes  to  be  the  best  information 
available. 

The  author  believes  that  college  and  university  teaching  should  be 
based  mainly  on  principles  of  growing  and  handling  vegetables  rather  than 
on  detailed  directions  for  performing  the  various  operations.  The  emphasis 
should  be  on  the  science  rather  than  on  the  art  of  gardening.  Proficiency 
in  the  art  of  gardening  can  be  acquired  only  by  practice,  and  it  is  impracti- 
cable for  the  college  to  give  the  student  sufficient  practice  in  all  phases  of 
gardening  to  make  him  proficient.  It  is  entirely  practicable  to  teach 
students  principles  upon  which  successful  gardening  practice  may  be  based 
and  this  is  the  contribution  that  the  college  should  make.  It  is  clearly 
recognized  that  some  practice  is  necessary  to  a  thorough  understanding 
of  the  principles  involved.  The  socalled  practical  exercises  or  laboratory 
work  should  be  so  planned  and  conducted  as  to  bring  out  the  principles 
taught,  rather  than  merely  to  teach  the  student  how  to  perform  a  given 
piece  of  work.  The  author  has  attempted  to  outhne  the  best  practice  and 
to  back  this  up  with  experimental  evidence  where  such  evidence  is 
available. 

In  the  preparation  of  this  book  extensive  use  was  made  of  the  material 
presented  in  publications  of  the  various  state  experiment  stations  and 
the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  and  in  scientific  journals. 
Credit  has  been  given  for  the  material  used.  The  author  wishes  to  express 
his  appreciation  for  helpful  suggestions  from  his  colleagues  and  Qljiers,,  - 
especially  to  Dr.  Paul  Work,  Dr.  E.  V.  Hardenburg,  anHMHS^Or  ll.  W. 
Schneck.      Acknowledgement  is  made  to  Masters  PWit^^CSfcc^iir  ^'i^^-o' 


s  > 


)2;i6 


VI  PREFACE 

3;  to  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  for  Figs.  4,  5,  6,  7, 
8,  9,  10,  13,  14,  15,  22,  23,  25,  27,  28,  and  29;  to  the  Department  of  Vege- 
table Gardening,  New  York  State  College  of  Agriculture,  Cornell  Uni- 
versity for  Figs.  1,  2,  12,  20,  21,  24,  26,  30,  31,  and  32;  to  C.  C.  Morse  and 
Company  for  Figs.  16,  17,  18,  and  19  and  to  the  Virginia  Truck  Experi- 
ment Station  for  Fig.  11. 

H.    C.    Thompson. 

Ithaca,  N.  Y. 
June,  1923. 


CONTENTS 

Page 

Preface v 

CHAPTER  I 

Vegetable  Gardening 1 

Truck  gardening — Market  gardening— Canning  crops  production — Vegetable 
forcing — Home  gardening. 

CHAPTER  II 

^SoiLS  AND  Soil  Preparation 10 

Kinds  of  soils — Soil  preparation. 

CHAPTER  III 

Manures 18 

Importance  of  manures. 

CHAPTER  IV 
Green  Manures 32 

CHAPTER  V 
Commercial  Fertilizers 37 

CHAPTER  VI 
Seeds  and  Seed  Growing 49 

CHAPTER  VII 

Greenhouses,  Hotbeds  and  Cold  Frames 58 

Greenhouses — Hotbeds — Cold  frames. 

CHAPTER  VIII 

Growing  Plants  for  Transplanting 65 

CHAPTER  IX 

Planting  Vegetable  Crops  in  the  Open 78 

CHAPTER  X 

Cultivation. 84 

CHAPTER  XI 

Irrigation 90 

CHAPTER  XII 

Rotation,  Succession  and  Intercropping 96 

Rotation — Succession  cropping — Intercropping  or  companion  cropping. 

vii 


vm  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  XIII 

Pack 

Control  of  Diseases  and  Insects 102 

CHAPTER  XIV 

Mauketing 112 

CHAPTER  XV 
Storage  of  Vegetables 122 

CHAPTER  XVI 

Classification  of  Vegetables 12S 

CHAPTER  XVII 

Perennial  Crops 13;^ 

Asparagus — Rliubarb — Artichoke — Jerusalem  artichoke — Hea-kale — Udo. 

CHAPTER  XVIII 

Potherbs  or  Greens I54 

Spinach — New  Zealand  spinach — Orach — Chard — Kale — Mustard — Collards 
— Dandelion. 

CHAPTER  XIX 

Salad  Crops I(i7 

Celery  —  Lettuce  —  Endive  —  Chicory  — Parsley — Chervil— Cress — W  a  t  e  r 
cress — Corn  salad. 

CHAPTER  XX 

Cole  Crops 207 

Cabbage  —  Cauliflower  —  Broccoli  —  Brussels  sprouts — Kohl-rabi — Chinese 
cabbage. 

CHAPTER  XXI 

Root  Crops 235 

Beet — Carrot — Parsnips — Salsify — Scorzonera  or  black  salsify — Scolyinus — 
Turnip — Rutabaga — Radish — Horseradish — Turnip-rooted  chervil — Skirret 
— Celeriac. 

CHAPTER  XXII 

Bulb  Crops 255 

Onion — Leek — Garhc — Shallots — Ciboul  or  Welch  onion — Chives. 

CHAPTER  XXIII 

The  Potato  Crops 275 

Potato — Sweet  potato. 

CHAPTER  XXIV 

Beans  and  Peas 331 

Beans — Broad  bean — Common  or  kidney  bean — Scarlet  runner  bean — 
Lima  beans — Tepary  liean — Soybean — Cowpcas — Peas. 


CONTENTS  ix 

CHAPTER  XXV 

Page 

SoLANACEous  Fruits 363 

Tomato — Eggplant — Peppers — Husk  tomato. 

CHAPTER  XXVI 

The  Cucurbits  or  Vine  Crops 402 

Cucumber — Muskmelon — Watermelon — Pumpkin  ami  squash. 

CHAPTER  XXVII 

Sweet  Corn,  Okra,  Martynia 437 

Sweet-corn — Okra — Martynia. 

Literature  Cited 457 

Index 465 


VEGETABLE  CROPS 

CHAPTER  I 
VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

Vegetable  gardening  is  one  of  the  branches  of  horticulture  and  is 
also  known  by  the  technical  name  olericulture.  Olericulture  is  usually 
defined  as  the  science  and  art  of  growing  vegetables,  but  as  it  is  now 
taught  and  practiced  it  includes  more  than  growing  crops.  In  general, 
it  may  be  said  to  include  growing,  harvesting,  grading,  packing,  trans- 
porting, storing  and  selling  or  merchandizing  vegetables.  Selling  or 
merchandizing  problems  belong  to  the  science  of  economics  rather  than 
to  vegetable  gardening. 

Vegetable  growing  is  an  important  phase  of  agriculture  and  is  increas- 
ing at  a  rapid  rate.  The  value  of  all  farm  crops  grown  in  the  United 
States  in  1919  was  $14,755,364,894,  while  the  value  of  vegetables  grown 
on  farms  was  $1,302,199,688.  The  area  devoted  to  vegetables  on  farms  in 
the  United  States  in  1919  was  less  than  2  per  cent  of  the  total  crop  land, 
while  the  value  of  the  vegetable  crops  was  nearly  9  per  cent  of  the  total 
value  of  all  farm  crops.  This  includes  the  value  of  vegetables  grown  in 
farm  home  gardens.  In  1919,  78.9  per  cent  of  the  farms,  or  5,090,293, 
in  the  United  States  had  farm  gardens  and  the  average  value  was  $68. 
In  addition  to  vegetables  grown  on  farms  there  are  hundreds  of  thousands 
of  home  gardens  in  cities  and  towns  that  are  not  included  in  the  census 
report. 

Vegetable  gardening  may  be  divided  into  five  divisions  based  upon 
the  objects  sought  and  the  methods  employed  in  producing  vegetables. 
These  divisions  are:  (1)  Truck  gardening,  (2)  market  gardening,  (3) 
canning  crops  production,  (4)  vegetable  forcing  and  (5)  home  gardening. 

TRUCK  GARDENING 

Truck  gardening  may  be  defined  as  the  growing  of  a  special  vegetable 
crop,  or  a  few  crops  in  relatively  large  quantities  for  a  distant  market. 
In  general,  truck  gardening  is  extensive  as  compared  to  market  gardening, 
but  in  the  production  of  some  truck  crops,  as  celery,  lettuce  and  onions, 
the  most  insive  methods  are  employed. 

1 


2  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

The  factors  that  shouhl  govern  the  selection  of  a  location  for  truck 
gardening  are:  (1)  Suitable  climate  for  the  crop  or  crops  to  be  grown, 
(2)  good  transportation  facilities  to  the  market,  and  (3)  desirable  soils. 

Climate  as  a  Factor  in  Truck  Gardening. — In  any  given  region  only 
those  crops  arc  grown,  for  long  distance  shipping,  that  are  especially 
adapted  to  the  climate.  In  other  words,  in  truck  growing  a  region  is 
selected  because  of  special  climatic  conditions.  Mam'^  trucking  regions 
in  the  South  and  in  California  have  become  important  because  of  favor- 
able climate  for  the  growing  of  vegetables  during  the  winter  and  early 
spring.  Other  regions  have  become  important  because  the  climatic 
conditions  are  especially  favorable  for  a  particular  crop,  as  Rocky  Ford, 
Colorado  and  the  Imperial  Valley  of  California  for  muskmelons.  In 
these  regions  the  climate  is  favorable  for  the  development  of  high  quality 
in  the  melons,  and,  it  is  less  favorable  to  the  development  of  muskmelon 
diseases  than  are  the  more  humid  regions. 

In  general,  the  important  regions  of  production  of  any  given  vege- 
table crop  are  important  because  the  climate  is  especially  well  suited 
to  that  crop.  The  climatic  conditions_that^  are  influential  arc  tempera- 
ture, rainfall,  hunfiSit^'  of  theatmosphere,  andJight  intensity.  The  ratio 
ofT-ainfall  to  evapm;ation_js_nnportaj[it  in-regions  where  irrigation  is 
not  practiced. 

Transportation  as  a  Factor  in  Truck  Gardening. — Since  in  truck 
gardening  the  vegetables  are  produced  long  distances  from  the  markets 
good  transportation  facilities  are  essential  to  success.  The  selection  of  a 
location  for  a  truck  gardening  enterprise,  within  the  regions  having 
suitable  climatic  conditions,  is  determined  largely  by  the  transportation 
facilities.  These  should  include  through  freight  service  by  railroad 
or  boat  lines,  good  refrigerator  service  for  long  distance  shipping,  express 
service  in  some  cases,  and  good  roads  from  the  farms  to  the  loading  points. 

The  early  development  of  truck  gardening  was  along  railroad  and 
steamboat  lines  leading  out  from  the  larger  eastern  cities,  especially  in 
New  Jersey,  Delaware,  Maryland  and  Virginia.  According  to  the  census 
report  for  1900  the  Steamer  Roanoke  in  1854  carried  the  first  shipment 
of  200  barrels  of  garden  truck  from  Norfolk,  Virginia  to  New  York. 
To  secure  proper  ventilation  these  packages  were  carried  on  deck  so 
that  the  quantity  which  could  be  transported  was  very  small.  The 
boats  required  36  hours  to  make  the  trip.  At  the  present  time  large 
boats  with  up-to-date  refrigeration  equipment  carry  thousands  of 
packages  between  decks  and  make  the  same  trip  in  one-half  the  time. 

While  vegetables  have  been  shipped  short  distances  by  rail  for  a  long 
time,  it  was  not  until  the  refrigerator  car  was  perfected  that  the  long 
distance  transportation  of  perishables  became  possible.  The  first  experi- 
ments in  the  use  of  ice  during  transit  were  made  in  the  fifties,  but  it 
was  not  until  the  eighties  that  the  carrying  of  vegetables  in  refrigerator 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING  3 

cars  began.  The  first  all  rail  shipment  of  vegetables  to  New  York  City 
from  Norfolk,  Virginia,  was  in  1885;  from  North  Carolina  in  1887; 
and  from  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  in  1888.  Without  refrigeration 
it  would  have  been  impossible  to  develop  the  trucking  industry  in 
regions  located  long  distances  from  the  market,  as  in  the  South  and  West. 

The  Soil  as  a  Factor  in  Truck  Gardening. — The  character  of  the 
soil  is  often  an  important  factor  in  determining  the  location  of  many 
truck  growing  enterprises,  as  that  of  the  production  of  celery,  lettuce  and 
onions  on  muck  soils  in  New  York,  Ohio,  Indiana,  Michigan  -and  other 
states.  Since  the  truck  grower  is  handicapped  by  distance  from  market, 
he  must  have  some  advantages  in  order  to  compete  successfully  with  the 
market  gardener.  In  most  instances  the  truck  grower  has  the  advantage 
of  a  suitable  climate  and  the  best  of  vegetable  soils.  Within  the  region 
having  a  climate  well-suited  to  the  crops  to  be  grown,  the  truck  grower 
should  determine  the  exact  location  on  the  basis  of  the  soil,  provided, 
of  course,  that  suitable  transportation  facilities  are  available.  The 
kind  of  soil  to  select  depends  upon  the^^rops  to  be  grown,  anjd  the,  time 
they  Me  wanted  for  the  market.  Fo^  early  crops  a  sandy  loam  soil  is 
desired,  but  where  earliness  is  not  as  important  as  larg»  yields  a  soil  more 
retentrve  oTmoisture~Ts  preferred. 

Trucking  Regions  of  the  United  States. — Blair  (13)  mentions  five 
distinct  trucking  regions  of  the  United  States  as  follows: 

L  Atlantic_Ccia§t  States.  This  includes  all  of  the  trucking  districts 
from  the  eastern  shore  of  Maryland  to  Florida. 

2.  The  Gulf  States.  This  includes^AIabama,  Mississippi,  LiOiiisiana 
andTexas. 

3.  Pacific  Coast  States.  Californi^Js- the  mostimpoxtant  state  in  the 
United  States  in  the  production  of  truck  crops.  Portions  of  Oregon  and 
Washington  also  produce  some  vegetables  for  distant  markets. 

4.  The  Interior  Southern  States.  This  region  includes  important 
trucking  districts  in  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  Arkansas,  Oklahoma,  Arizona 
and  New  Mexico. 

5.  The  Northern  States  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  (including 
Colorado).  This  region  includes  the  important  muskmelon  section  of 
Colorado,  the  important  onion  and  celery  centers  of  Michigan,  Indiana, 
Ohio  and  New  York,  the  great  cabbage  centers  of  New  York  and 
Wisconsin,  the  great  potato  sections  of  Colorado,  Minnesota,  Michigan, 
New  York  and  Maine.  This  region  also  produces  a  large  part  of  the  peas, 
sweet  corn  and  tomatoes  grown  for  canning. 

The  South  Atlantic  and  Gulf  Coast  States  and  California  are  pre- 
eminently the  winter  garden  areas  of  the  United  States.  The  Interior 
Southern  States  are  important  as  producers  of  various  vegetables  for 
spring  and  early  summer  use.  The  Northern  States  East  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains  produce  a  large  part  of  the  vegetables  which  go  on  the  market 


4  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

in  the  fresh  state  in  late  summer  and  fall,  as  well  as  the  bulk  of  the 
potatoes,  cabbage,  onions,  celery  and  all  other  vegetables  that  are  stored 
for  winter  use. 


MARKET  GARDENING 

Market  gardening  may  be  defined  as  that  branch  of  gardening  wiiich 
has  for  its  object  the  production  of  vegetables  for  a  local  market.  It  is 
more  intensive  than  truck  gardening,  and  is  usually  practiced  on  high- 
priced  land.  The  high  land  value  is  due  mainly  to  the  location.  A  large 
percentage  of  the  market  garden  land  is  near  enough  to  large  cities  to  be 
valuable  for  building  lots. 

The  market  gardener  usually  grows  several  vegetables,  and,  in  many 
cases,  two  or  three  crops  of  the  same  vegetable  are  grown  during  a  season. 
Since  he  caters  to  a  local  market  it  is  desirable  for  the  market  gardener 
to  have  a  continuous  supply  of  vegetables  for  a  large  part  of  the  season 
in  order  to  hold  his  trade.  The  market  gardener  must  be  a  good  all 
around  gardener  rather  than  a  crop  specialist,  and,  to  be  successful,  he 
must  be  a  good  salesman  since  he  usually  sells  his  own  products. 

Development  of  Market  Gardening  in  the  United  States.— In  the 
early  days,  when  the  population  was  scattered  and  there  were  no  cities 
and  towns  each  family  produced  its  own  vegetables.  As  towns  and  cities 
sprang  up  market  gardening  developed  to  meet  the  needs  of  those 
members  of  the  population  who  had  no  land.  For  a  long  time  this 
industry  was  confined  to  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  cities,  but  as  the 
population  increased  and  the  demand  for  vegetables  grew  the  area  was 
greatly  enlarged.  However,  until  comparatively  recent  times  (since  1900) 
most  market  gardens  were  within  10  to  15  miles  of  the  cities,  but  with  the 
building  of  good  roads  and  the  development  of  the  motor  truck  the  market 
gardening  area  has  been  greatly  extended.  At  the  present  time  (1923) 
market  gardening  is  carried  on  30,  40,  50  and  even  75  miles  from  the 
consuming  centers  and  the  produce  is  hauled  direct  to  market  by  motor 
trucks. 

Prior  to  1860  market  gardeners  supplied  a  large  part  of  the  vegetables 
consumed  in  the  cities,  for  truck  growing  was  almost  unknown  at  that 
time,  except  to  a  very  limited  extent  along  the  railroad  and  steamship 
lines  leading  out  50  miles  or  so  from  a  few  of  the  larger  cities.  While  the 
market  garden  areas  around  many  of  the  large  cities  are  increasing  in 
size,  market  gardening  is  not  developing  as  rapidly  as  truck  gardening. 

Selecting  a  Location. — The  selection  of  a  location  is  largely  a  matter  of 
personal  preference,  since  market  gardening  is  carried  on  in  the  immediate 
vicinity  of  nearly  all  cities  in  the  United  States.  In  general,  the  market 
should  be  given  first  consideration.  While  the  large  cities  provide  the 
largest  markets  for  vegetables  they  are  not  always  the  best,   because 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING  5 

many  of  them  are  already  supplied.  Many  of  the  smaller  cities  and 
industrial  towns  are  poorly  supplied  with  vegetables  for  a  large  part  of 
the  season.  Such  markets  offer  excellent  opportunities  to  market 
gardeners. 

After  selecting  the  market  the  would-be  market  gardener  should 
choose  the  exact  location  with  reference  to  the  city  or  town.  In  making 
this  choice  he  should  consider  the  kind  of  soil,  the  price  of  land,  the  tax 
rate,  the  distance  from  market,  the  character  of  the  roads,  the  topog- 
raphy of  the  land,  the  exposure,  the  possibility  of  getting  a  supply  of 
labor,  the  water  supply  and  the  general  character  of  the  community  from 
the  social  standpoint.  Other  things  being  equal  low-priced  land  is 
desirable,  but  the  other  factors  should  be  considered  along  with  price. 
Distance  from  market  should  be  measured  in  time  required  to  reach  it 
rather  than  in  miles.  A  garden  located  15  miles  from  market  on  a  good 
road  is  preferable  to  one  on  a  bad  road  much  nearer  to  market.  Level  or 
gently  rolling  land  is  preferred  to  hilly  land  since  the  latter  is  difficult  to 
work  and  is  subject  to  erosion.  When  earliness  is  an  important  factor, 
as  it  is  in  most  market  gardening,  a  southern  or  eastern  exposure  is  better 
than  either  a  northern  or  western  one. 

CANNING  CROPS  PRODUCTION 

The  growing  of  vegetables  for  the  canning  factory  is  an  important 
industry  in  the  North  and  in  sections  of  the  West,  especially  in  California. 
The  most  important  vegetables  used  in  canning  are  tomatoes,  sweet  corn, 
peas  and  asparagus,  although  a  large  number  of  other  vegetables  are 
canned  in  considerable  quantities.  The  importance  of  the  vegetable 
canning  industry  is  indicated  by  the  number  of  cases  of  canned  vegetables 
packed  and  the  value  of  the  product  as  shown  in  Table  I.  The  figures 
are  from  the  census  report  for  the  year  1919. 


Table  I. 


-Number  of  Cases  of  Canned  Vegetables  Packed  in  the    United 
States  in  1919  and  the  Value  of  the  Product 


Vegetable 

Number 

eases  No.  2 

cans 

Value 

Vegetable 

Number 
cases  No.  2 

Value 

1,006,604 
11,142,331 

2,199,82.'> 
429,104 
584,403 
468,569 
584,309 
14,402,725 

1,202,125 

9,325,727 

$     6,571,629 

28,551,342 

6.607.080 

1.429.680 

1.362.782 

1.457.719 

1.951.344 

35.532.007 

2.845,340 

25,073,220 

383.211 
373,977 
841.813 
676.388 
11.885.520 
739.055 
217.729 

634 , 220 
57,097,635 

$         861,436 

Succotash 

Sweet  potatoes 

Spinach*      ... 

2,477,719 

Beans,  kidney   

2,338,497 

Beans,  all  others 

Tomatoes* 

Tomato  pulp"^ 

Tomato  paste* 

All    other    vege- 
tables 

38.067.999 

Kraut''   

1,672,518 

Peas 

Total 

163,062,389 

No.  2)1'  cans.     ''  No.  3  cans.     <^  Case  contains  12  No.  10  cans.     "*  Case  contains  48  No.  1  cans. 


6  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

Important  Regions  of  Production.— The  rogions  which  have  the 
most  favorable  growing  conditions. tend  to  become  the  leaders  in  the 
production  of  certain  vegetables  for  canning.  Other  factors,  however, 
have  an  effect  on  the  development  of  the  vegetable  canning  industry 
even  where  the  growing  conditions  are  not  the  most  favorable.  In  many 
cases  factories  are  located  at  certain  points  because  of  the  supply  of 
fruits  available,  but  vegetables  are  also  canned  even  though  the  conditions 
are  not  very  favorable  for  their  production. 

In  1919  nearly  all  of  the  asparagus  was  packed  in  California.  Indiana 
led  in  baked  beans.  New  York  canned  the  most  string  beans  and  was 
followed  by  Maryland,  Wisconsin  and  California  in  the  order  given. 
Iowa  was  the  leading  sweet  corn  canning  state,  but  was  closely  followed 
by  Maryland  and  Illinois.  Other  important  sweet  corn  states  were, 
Maine,  Ohio,  New  York,  Wisconsin,  Indiana  and  Michigan.  Ohio 
led  in  the  production  of  kraut,  followed  by  New  York,  Wisconsin  and 
Michigan.  Wisconsin  canned  over  half  of  the  peas  packed  in  the  United 
States  in  1919.  Delaware,  Marjdand,  Mississippi  and  Virginia  were  the 
leading  states  in  sweet  potato  canning.  California  and  Maryland 
canned  over  half  of  the  tomatoes  packed  in  the  United  States  in  1919. 
Other  important  tomato  canning  states  were  Indiana,  Virginia,  Utah, 
Missouri  and  New  York.  In  most  instances  the  leading  states  have 
favorable  climates  and  soils  for  the  particular  crop  or  crops  in  which 
they  lead. 

In  growing  canning  crops  large  yields  are  more  important  than  earli- 
ness,  and  unless  a  fairly  large  crop  can  be  grown  the  growers  will  not 
continue  in  the  industry,  because,  in  most  cases  the  price  is  set  in  advance 
and  there  is  little  or  no  chance  to  secure  a  higher  price  on  account  of 
short  crops.  Most  vegetables  for  canning  are  grown  on  contract  and 
the  price  is  usually  not  more  than  enough  to  cover  cost  of  production  of 
an  average  normal  yield.  When  the  yield  is  below  normal  most  growers 
lose  money  on  the  crop. 

Methods  of  Production. — Vegetables  for  the  canning  factory  generally 
are  produced  on  a  more  extensive  scale  than  when  grown  for  the  general 
market.  Less  intensive  methods  are  followed  with  most  crops  grown  for 
canning  than  is  followed  with  the  same  crops  produced  for  market.  Most 
of  the  vegetable  canning  crops  are  produced  b}^  the  general  farmer,  in 
rotation  with  grains  and  other  standard  farm  crops  rather  than  by  the 
vegetable  gardener.  However,  the  market  gardener  and  the  truck 
grower,  in  some  regions,  often  grow  crops  for  canning.  Since  earlincss  is 
not  usually  very  important  heavier  soils  are  selected  for  canning  crops 
than  for  the  same  crops  grown  for  the  market.  The  heavier  soils  gener- 
ally are  richer  and  have  a  higher  water-holding  power  than  the  sands  ann 
sandy  loams;  hence  they  are  more  productive.  The  cost  of  productiod 
per  acre  and  per  ton  is  usually  less  for  canning  crops  than  for  similar 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING  7 

crops  grown  for  market,  because  of  lower  land  value,  less  hand  labor, 
smaller  quantity  of  fertilizer,  lower  cost  of  handling.  The  lower  cost 
of  handling  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  canning  crops  are  not  graded, 
cleaned  or  specially  prepared,  and  there  is  either  no  expense  or  a  very 
small  expense  for  packages.  In  some  cases  the  canners  furnish  packages, 
but  even  where  they  do  not,  the  expense  to  the  grower  is  relatively  low 
because  the  packages  are  returned. 

VEGETABLE  FORCING 

Vegetable  forcing  is  the  growing  of  vegetables  out  of  their  normal 
season  of  growth  and  is  accomplished  by  means  of  artificial  heat,  or 
in  some  cases  by  means  of  protection  from  cold.  Greenhouses  are  the 
common  structures  used  for  forcing  vegetables,  especially  in  the  North, 
although  hotbeds  are  used  to  a  considerable  extent  in  some  sections  for 
forcing  lettuce,  radishes  and  other  small  vegetables.  In  the  South  cold 
frames  are  used  to  a  considerable  extent  for  hastening  various  crops. 
Cloth-covered  frames  are  used  for  considerable  areas  of  lettuce  in  North 
Carolina  and  glass-covered  frames  are  in  use  in  the  vicinity  of  Norfolk, 
Virginia  for  growing  many  vegetables,  including  cucumbers  in  the  spring. 
Cellars,  caves  and  specially  built  houses  are  employed  in  growing  mush- 
rooms and  in  forcing  rhubarb  and  asparagus.  These  crops  are  forced  in 
the  dark  so  that  glass  is  unnecessary. 

Vegetable  forcing  has  developed  because  of  the  demand  for  fresh 
vegetables  out  of  season.  It  has  grown  up  mainly  as  an  adjunct  to 
market  gardening,  although  at  the  present  time  many  greenhouse  men 
do  not  produce  any  vegetables  out  of  doors.  The  vegetable  forcing 
industry  has  developed  mainly  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  country,  espe- 
cially the  greenhouse  forcing  industry.  Some  of  the  important  vegetable 
forcing  centers  are  Boston,  Massachusetts;  Rochester,  New  York; 
Erie  and  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania;  Ashtabula,  Cleveland  and  Toledo, 
Ohio;  Grand  Rapids,  Michigan;  Chicago,  Illinois;  Terre  Haute,  Indiana; 
and  Davenport,  Iowa.  Some  vegetable  forcing  has  developed  around 
nearly  all  of  the  northern  cities,  and  about  man}'^  of  the  southern  and 
western  cities. 

Since  vegetable  forcing  is  a  very  specialized  industry  requiring 
detailed  treatment  and  discussion  it  is  not  further  considered  in  this  book. 

HOME  GARDENING 

The  production  of  vegetables  for  home  use  is  the  oldest  branch  of 
vegetable  gardening  and  is  still  of  very  great  importance.  The  value  of 
the  vegetables  grown  in  the  farm  home  gardens  alone  was  $193,248,964 
in  1919.     In  addition  to  these,  there  are  hundreds  of  thousands,  perhaps 


8  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

millions,  of  home  gardens  in  villages,  towns  and  cities  not  included 
in  the  census  report  and  the  value  of  whose  products  is  not  known. 
More  important  than  the  value,  as  reckoned  in  dollars  and  cents 
is  the  relation  of  these  vegetables  to  the  health  of  those  whose  only 
available  supply  is  that  grown  at  home.  Thousands  of  farmers  and  other 
dwellers  in  rural  communities  are  unable  to  get  fresh  vegetables  unless 
they  grow  them.  Other  thousands  do  not  get  fresh  vegetalbes  unless 
grown  at  home  even  though  they  can  be  purchased  nearby. 

It  is  often  said  that  the  general  farmer  can  buy  vegetables  more 
cheaply  than  he  can  produce  them,  but  it  is  a  matter  of  common  obser- 
vation, that  unless  he  produces  them  his  family  does  without  them.  It 
may  be  true,  in  some  cases,  that  it  is  cheaper  to  buy  than  to  produce 
vegetables,  but  in  most  country  communities  fresh  vegetables  are  not 
available  in  the  stores.  In  most  cases  it  is  probably  cheaper  to  produce 
vegetables  on  the  farm  than  to  buy  them  where  they  can  be  bought. 
Certainly  no  area  of  the  same  size  on  the  general  farm  produces  as  much 
in  real  value  as  the  well  cared  for  home  garden. 

Location  of  the  Home  Garden. — Where  there  is  an  opportunity  for  a 
choice  in  the  selection  of  a  location  of  a  home  garden  usually  the  ques- 
tion of  nearness  to  the  house  should  be  given  first  consideration.  As 
most  of  the  work  in  caring  for  the  garden  is  done  in  spare  time  the  location 
selected  should  be  as  close  to  the  house  as  practicable.  Nearness  to  the 
house  is  also  of  importance  in  the  gathering  of  vegetables,  since  this  is 
usually  done  by  the  women  of  the  family.  In  dry  regions  it  is  desirable 
to  locate  the  garden  where  it  can  be  irrigated  easily  and  conveniently,  and 
in  cold,  exposed  sections  of  the  country  location  with  reference  to  pro- 
tection from  the  winds  is  important.  In  most  sections  of  the  North  a 
southern  or  southeastern  exposure  is  desirable  since  the  soils  on  these 
exposures  warm  up  earlier  in  the  spring. 

Plan  and  Arrangement  of  the  Garden. — The  plan  and  arrangement  of 
the  garden  should  be  determined  ])y  the  size  of  the  area  to  be  used,  the 
slope  of  the  land  and  the  kind  of  cultivation  to  be  given.  In  a  small 
garden  cultivated  by  hand  the  rows  may  be  closer  together  than  for 
horse  cultivation.  The  farm  garden  shovdd  usually  be  planned  for 
horse  cultivation  and  the  area  should  be  long  and  narrow  rather  than 
square.  The  rows  should  run  the  long  way  of  the  garden  and  it  is 
desirable  to  have  turning  spaces  at  the  ends. 

The  size  of  the  garden  depends  upon  the  number  of  persons  to  be 
supplied,  but  it  is  better  to  have  a  small  well-kept  garden  than  a  large  one 
poorly  cared  for.  By  close  attention  to  succession  cropping  and  inter- 
cropping, 3-^  acre  of  land  may  be  made  to  supply  a  family  of  six.  Where 
land  is  plentiful  it  is  often  desirable  to  set  aside  enough  land  to  allow  a 
part  of  the  garden  to  be  planted  to  a  soil-improving  crop  each  year,  but 
this  is  not  essential  where  plenty  of  manure  is  available. 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING  9 

The  location  of  perennial  crops  such  as  asparagus,  rhubarb  and  small 
fruits  should  be  given  careful  consideration.  These  should  be  placed  at 
one  side  or  at  one  end  of  the  garden  where  they  will  not  be  in  the  way  when 
the  garden  is  plowed.  Long  season  crops  or  those  occupying  the  land 
throughout  the  growing  season  should  be  planted  together.  Quick- 
maturing  crops  should  be  planted  in  contiguous  rows  so  that  the  area 
may  be  planted  to  a  single  late  crop.  It  is  desirable  to  plant  tall-growing 
crops  together  and  locate  them  so  they  will  not  shade  the  lower- 
growing  crops. 

A  plan  should  be  made  on  paper  before  undertaking  the  planting  of 
the  garden.  This  plan  should  show  the  location  of  all  of  the  crops,  the 
amount  of  space  devoted  to  each,  the  crops  that  are  to  follow  the  early 
ones  and  the  distance  between  the  rows.  It  should  be  possible  to  cal- 
culate from  the  plan  the  quantity  of  seeds  required  for  each  vegetable. 


CHAPTER  ir 

SOILS  AND  SOIL  PREPARATION 

The  soil  is  the  storage  house  for  certain  elements  and  compounds  used 
by  the  plants,  as  well  as  the  home  of  the  plant  roots.  Therefore,  the 
physical  and  chemical  composition  of  the  soil  is  of  prime  importance  in 
crop  production.  The  chemical  composition  can  be  changed  by  adding 
fertilizers  and  other  materials  and  to  some  extent,  by  drainage  and  tillage, 
which  favor  aeration.  The  physical  condition  of  the  soil  is  improved  by 
drainage,  by  tillage  and  by  incorporating  organic  matter,  or  by  mixing 
in  other  soils  as  sand  in  clay,  or  muck  in  either  clay  or  sand.  Unless  the 
soil  is  in  good  physical  condition  large  yields  cannot  be  secured.  Fertil- 
izers, good  seed  and  the  best  of  care,  will  not  insure  success  unless  the  soil 
is  of  the  right  texture  and  is  well  prepared. 

KINDS  OF  SOILS 

Practically  every  kind  of  soil  is  used  for  vegetable  production  in  the 
United  States,  but  some  are  considered  better  than  others.  A  sandy  loam 
soil  is  considered  best,  but  no  one  type  is  best  for  all  crops  under  all 
conditions.  Every  type  of  soil  has  its  advantages  and  disadvantages. 
The  soils  preferred  for  vegetable  production  are  sandy,  sandy  loam,  clay 
loam,  silt  and  muck. 

Sandy  Soils. — A  sandy  soil  is  an  early  soil,  because  it  dries  out  earl}' 
in  the  spring  and  therefore  warms  up  earlier  than  the  finer  soils.  It  is 
valuable  for  growing  very  early  crops  which  do  not  require  a  long  season. 
This  type  of  soil  is  naturally  poor,  requiring  heavy  manuring  and  fertil- 
izing for  good  results.  It  dries  out  quickly,  therefore  is  not  suited  to  long 
season  crops,  or  those  commonly  grown  during  the  drier  part  of  the  year. 
The  finer  sandy  soil,  such  as  the  Norfolk  fine  sand,  is  used  quite  exten- 
sively for  vegetable  growing,  but  for  good  results  in  producing  midseason 
crops,  manure  or  other  humus-forming  material  must  be  used  in  large 
cjuantity  to  make  the  soil  retentive  of  moisture. 

Sandy  Loams. — This  type  of  soil  is  used  more  for  truck  growing  and 
market  gardening  than  any  other  type  and  for  general  use  it  is  consid- 
ered best.  It  is  more  retentive  of  moisture  than  the  sands,  but  is  not 
quite  as  early.  However,  the  small  disadvantage  in  earliness  is  more 
than  offset  by  the  other  factor  mentioned.  Sandy  loam  soils,  while 
usually  somewhat  poor,  are  richer  than  the  sands.     All  soils  of  sandy 


SOILS  AND  SOIL  PREPARATION  11 

nature  can  be  prepared  earlier  in  the  spring  and  sooner  after  rains  than 
any  of  the  soils  containing  considerable  clay.  The  sandy  sorts  while  still 
wet  do  not  puddle  and  bake  when  plowed,  harrowed  or  cultivated. 
This  is  a  decided  advantage  in  growing  vegetables,  because  a  few  daj-s' 
delay  in  getting  on  the  land  in  spring  maj',  and  often  does,  mean  the  differ- 
ence between  profit  and  loss. 

Clay  Loams. — Clay  loam  is  more  retentive  of  moisture  than  either 
the  sand  or  the  sandy  loam  and  is  naturally  richer.  It  is  not  as  early 
because  it  holds  moisture  longer  in  the  spring,  therefore  does  not  warm 
up  as  readily  as  the  sands  and  the  sandy  loams.  Clay  loams  are  not 
suited  to  growing  crops  where  earliness  is  a  prime  consideration.  Because 
of  its  water-holding  capacity  and  because  it  is  naturally  richer  than  the 
sands  and  sandy  loams,  a  clay  loam  is  valuable  for  crops  grown  during 
the  dry  portion  of  the  season  especially  where  large  yields  are  more 
important  than  earliness.  Late  cabbage,  late  potatoes,  late  sweet  corn, 
tomatoes  and  peas  for  the  cannery  are  grown  quite  extensively  on  this 
type  of  soil.  A  clay  loam  must  be  prepared  and  cultivated  just  at  the 
right  time  to  prevent  baking  and  breaking  up  in  lumps. 

Mucks  and  Peats. — Muck  is  composed  of  organic  material  made  up  of 
partially  decayed  plant  remains  that  have  accumulated  in  wet  places. 
The  terms  muck  and  peat  are  often  used  indiscriminately  but  the  former 
term  should  refer  to  an  organic  soil  that  has  undergone  decomposition 
to  such  an  extent  that  the  plant  remains  are  no  longer  recognizable. 
Muck  soils  should  not  be  confused  with  those  mineral  soils  of  a  mucky 
nature  containing  considerable  humus,  but  which  are  not  combustible. 
True  muck  will  burn  when  dry. 

The  chief  characteristics  of  muck  are: 

1.  It  is  predominately  organic  in  nature,  containing  50  to  85  per  cent  combiisti])le 
material  when  dry. 

2.  It  is  brown  or  black  in  color  and  the  more  advanced  the  stage  of  decomposition 
the  darker  the  color. 

3.  It  has  a  high  water-holding  capacity,  absorbing  60  to  85  per  cent  of  its  volume 
and  300  to  1,000  per  cent  of  its  weight  of  water. 

4.  It  is  generally  rich  in  nitrogen.  Most  of  the  muck  soils  that  are  under  cultiva- 
tion contain  from  1^  to  2}^  per  cent  of  nitrogen  in  organic  form.  Many  deposits 
contain  much  more  than  this. 

5.  Muck  is  usually  low  in  mineral  elements,  especially  potash.  All  deposits 
that  have  been  tested  are  poor  in  potash,  which  is  the  main  limiting  factor. 

6.  Muck  is  a  fate  soil  because  of  its  high  water-holding  capacity  and  it  is  subject 
to  late  frosts  in  spring  and  early  frosts  in  fall. 

For  the  production  of  certain  vegetables,  especially  cj^ery,  lettuce,  and 
onions  muck  soils  ^-e  considered  better  than  any  others.  A  large  portion 
of  the  celery,  lettuce  and  onions  grown  as  truck  crops  in  the  North,  is 
produced  on  muck  soils.  Carrots,  beets,  parsnips,  spinach,  cabbage, 
potatoes  and  other  vegetables  are  grown  to  some  extent  on  muck  soils. 


12  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

Muck  soils  are  easily  tilled,  can  be  worked  soon  after  rains,  do  not  bake, 
are  rich  in  nitrogen,  and  being  loose,  root  crops  grow  straight  and 
symmetrical. 

Muck  soils  are  not  suitable  for  tender,  long-season  crops,  because 
frosts  are  likely  to  occur  earlier  in  the  fall  and  later  in  the  spring  than  on 
upland  soils.  It  has  been  assumed  that  this  is  due  largely  to  the  low 
elevation  of  the  muck.  Bouyoucos  (14)  has  given  a  brief  summary  of 
results  of  studies  made  in  Michigan  which  show  that  other  factors  are 
also  responsible  for  lower  temperatures  on  muck  than  on  surrounding 
mineral  soils.     He  reports  as  follows: 

It  is  a  very  common  experience  with  farmers  and  gardeners  working  with 
muck  and  peat  soils,  that  when  a  frost  occurs  during  the  growing  season  plants 
which  are  easily  susceptible  to  freezing,  such  as  corn  and  strawberries,  are  almost 
always  injured  or  entirely  killed  by  it.  On  the  other  hand,  the  same  kind  of 
plants  growing  on  mineral  soils  such  as  clay  loam,  sand,  etc.,  located  very  close  to 
and  on  the  same  level  as  the  muck  and  peat  soils,  usually  are  not  injured  by  the 
frost,  unless  it  is  very  heavy.  For  instance,  2  years  ago  corn  growing  on  muck 
land  at  the  College  farm  was  killed  almost  completely  by  an  early  frost  in  the  fall, 
while  the  corn  growing  on  the  adjacent  loam  soil  which  was  very  close  to  and 
almost  at  the  same  elevation  as  muck  land,  was  not  at  all  injured.  The  question 
now  is  why  should  the  plants  freeze  more  easily  on  the  mucks  and  peats  than  on 
the  mineral  soils. 

In  order  to  be  able  to  answer  this  question  the  Soils  Department  of  the 
Michigan  Agricultural  College  a  few  years  ago  started  some  experiments  to  study 
the  subject.  It  may  be  of  interest  to  muck  farmers  and  gardeners,  and  perhaps 
to  others,  to  know  what  these  findings  are.  Ih  a  few  words,  the  experiments 
seem  to  prove  that  the  main  reason  the  plants  freeze  more  easily  on  a  muck  than 
on  a  clay  is  that  the  muck  does  not  manage  to  keep  its  surface  and  the  air  above 
it  as  warm  during  the  night  as  does  the  clay.  For  instance,  in  a  night  during 
September  when  frost  occurred,  the  temperature  of  the  muck  right  at  the  surface 
was  4  degrees  below  freezing  while  the  temperature  of  the  clay  was  almost  5 
degrees  above  freezing.  During  the  day  both  soils  had  the  same  temperature. 
Now  when  a  soil  has  a  high  temperature  at  the  surface  during  the  night  it  helps 
to  warm  up  the  air  above,  and  to  prevent  a  frost.  The  clay,  therefore,  which 
manages  to  keep  its  surface  warm  will  prevent  a  frost,  while  the  muck  which 
allows  its  surface  to  become  cold,  will  permit  a  frost.  Plants,  therefore,  freeze 
more  easily  on  mucks  and  peats  than  on  mineral  soils. 

The  reason  that  the  mineral  soils,  such  as  clay,  loam  and  sand,  manage  to 
keep  their  surface  warmer  than  the  mucks  and  peats  is  that  the  mineral  soils  allow 
the  heat  to  travel  through  them  faster  than  do  the  mucks  and  peats.  The  heat 
which  is  stored  in  the  lower  depths  during  the  day  comes  to  the  surface  during 
the  night,  and  the  mineral  soils  which  allow  the  heat  to  travel  faster  manage  to 
keep  their  surface  warmer  than  the  mucks  and  peats  which  allow  the  heat  to 
travel  through  them  very  slowly.  These  facts  are  well  illustrated  by  the  follow- 
ing results — when  all  the  soils  got  coldest  at  the  surface  during  the  night  the 
temperature  of  the  clay  at  the  surface  was  36.2  degrees  F.  and  that  of  the  muck 


SOILS  AND  SOIL  PREPARATION  13 

28  degrees  F.  At  6  inches  below  the  surface,  however,  the  temperature  of  the 
clay  was  46.5  degrees  F.,  while  that  of  the  muck  was  51.4  degrees  F.  These 
figures  show,  therefore,  that  even  though  the  muck  is  about  5  degrees  warmer 
than  the  clay  at  6  inches  below  the  surface,  yet  on  account  of  the  poor  ability 
of  the  muck  to  conduct  this  heat,  it  allowed  its  surface  to  become  about  5  degrees 
colder  than  that  of  the  clay. 

We  are  now  conducting  experiments  to  find  the  best  and  most  practical 
ways  of  increasing  the  ability  of  the  mucks  and  peats  to  conduct  heat  faster 
and  thereby  prevent  or  minimize  the  damage  of  frost  to  plants.  At  present 
packing  the  soils  and  maintaining  a  high  moisture  content  appears  to  be  among 
the  most  promising  methods.  In  some  of  the  experiments  packed  muck  was 
more  than  3  degrees  warmer  at  the  surface  than  cultivated  muck  during 
a  frosty  night.  '■^M 

The  influence  of  water  content  is  well  exemplified  by  the  following  observation. 
In  the  fall  of  1920  corn  growing  in  a  basin  of  muck  land,  where  the  drainage  was 
very  poor,  the  water  table  and  moisture  content  high,  was  hardly  touched  by  a 
frost,  while  the  corn  growing  on  the  surrounding  muck  land  with  a  slightly  higher 
elevation  and  much  drier  was  completely  killed  by  the  frost. 

Not  all  mucks  are  valuable  for  vegetable  growing.  Their  value 
depends  upon  the  stage  of  decomposition,  the  character  of  the  material 
from  which  the  soil  was  formed,  the  drainage  and  other  factors.  In 
general,  the  more  decomposed  the  material  the  better  the  muck  for 
vegetable  growing.  It  is  believed  by  many  authorities  that  muck 
soils  which  have  supported  a  growth  of  deciduous  trees  and  shrubs  are 
better  than  those  which  have  grown  coniferous  trees.  A  peat  which 
contains  a  large  amount  of  material  from  coniferous  trees  decomposes 
more  slowly  than  one  which  does  not  contain  such  material.  This  is 
probably  due  to  the  resins  in  the  conifers,  which  preserve  the  woody 
materials.  Some  muck  soils  are  toxic,  usually  on  account  of  the  under- 
lying rock  and  arc  nearly  useless  for  growing  vegetables. 

Drainage  and  tillage  are  important  factors  in  the  decomposition  of 
the  organic  material  in  muck  soils.  Removing  the  water  and  stirring  the 
soil  allow  air  to  enter  which  favors  the  growth  of  organisms  that  cause 
the  breaking  down  of  the  plant  remains.  Oxidation  itself  is  of  importance. 
Lime  also  favors  decomposition  when  the  soils  are  sour  for  the  desirable 
organisms  do  not  thrive  well  in  an  acid  soil.  Stable  manure  has  been 
found  very  beneficial  on  newly-cleared  muck  soils  because  of  the  presence 
of  beneficial  organisms  in  the  manure.  The  manure  may  therefore  be 
considered  as  an  inoculant  or  at  least  a  carrier  of  beneficial  organisms. 

For  the  first  few  years  after  muck  is  cleared  it  is  advisable  to  grow 
some  general  farm  crop,  such  as  corn  or  hay,  rather  than  vegetables. 
The  latter  do  not  thrive  well  on  new  muck  and  the  roots  and  trash  inter- 
fere with  planting,  cultivating  and  harvesting  the  more  intensively 
cultivated  vegetables.  Two  or  three  years  of  tillage  will  usually  put 
most  muck  soils  in  good  condition  for  onions,  celery  and  lettuce. 


14  .  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

Importance  and  Distribution  of  Muck. — It  has  been  estimated 
that  there  are  approximately  138,000  square  miles  or  nearly  90,000,000 
acres  of  swamp  land  in  the  United  States,  a  large  part  of  which  is  muck  or 
peat  (37).  The  muck  and  peat  deposits  are  more  abundant  in  the  North- 
east than  in  other  sections  of  the  country.  The  main  deposits  are  north 
of  a  line  extending  westward  from  about  the  southern  boundiy  of  New 
York  nearly  to  the  ninetieth  meridian.  Other  deposits  are  found  in  a 
narrow  strip  along  the  Atlantic  coast  to  and  including  Florida  and  small 
areas  occur  in  California,  Oregon  and  Washington.  There  are  small 
deposits  in  other  states  but  these  are  not  of  much  importance.  Michigan, 
Wisconsin  and  Minnesota  contain  the  largest  areas  of  muck,  but  only  a 
very  small  part  of  this  is  cleared.  In  fact  only  a  very  small  percentage  of 
the  muck  deposits  of  the  United  States  is  under  cultivation  and  most 
of  this  is  used  for  general  farm  crops.  This  is  as  it  should  be,  for  if 
2  per  cent  of  the  muck  land  acreage  was  planted  to  the  three  most 
important  vegetable  crops  there  would  be  serious  overproduction  with 
resultant  low  prices  for  the  products. 

Silts. — Silt  soils  are  valuable  for  the  production  of  some  vegetables, 
especially  those  requiring  a  rich,  relatively  moist  soil.  Late  cabbage, 
sweet  corn  for  the  cannery,  rhubarb  and  horse-radish  do  especially  well 
on  this  type  of  soil,  the  last  because  a  deep  rich  soil  is  important  to  growth 
of  good,  straight  roots.  River-bottom  lands  often  contain  silt  and  silty 
loam  soils  which  are  enriched  by  the  deposit  of  sediment  from  the  rivers 
during  over-flow  periods.  Where  large  yields  are  more  important  than 
earliness  silt  soils  of  river  bottoms  are  very  desirable,  although  the 
abundance  of  weeds  is  one  disadvantage  on  such  lands.  The  lighter 
silts  are  valuable  for  root  crops  such  as  beets  and  carrots,  and  these 
crops  are  often  grown  on  such  soils. 

SOIL  PREPARATION 

Thorough  preparation  of  the  soil  is  essential  to  successful  production 
of  nearly  all  farm  crops  and  is  .especially  important  in  the  growing  of 
vegetables.  Poor  preparation  usually  results  in  an  inferior  stand  of  plants 
regardless  of  the  quality  of  the  seed  and  no  amo\mt  of  after  cultivation  will 
take  the  place  of  good  preparation.  Among  the  operations  considered 
arc  drainage,  plowing,  harrowing,  dragging  and  rolling.  Clearing  the  land 
might  be  considered  also,  and,  in  irrigated  regions,  leveling  undoubtedly 
would  be  considered  as  a  part  of  preparation  but  these  are  not  considered 
here. 

Drainage. — For  wet  soils  the  first  operation  in  the  preparation  should 
be  drainage  as  most  soils  cannot  be  properly  prepared  when  poorly 
drained.  Good  drainage  is  essential  to  success  in  growing  practically  all 
vegetables,  although  some  crops  stand  wet  soils  better  than  others,  and  a 


SOILS  AND  SOIL  PREPARATION  15 

few  minor  crops,  such  as  water  cress,  thrive  in  a  very  wet  soil.  Good 
drainage  is  especially  important  for  early  vegetables  because  earliness  is 
not  possible  in  a  wet  soil.  The  sands  are  of  value  in  growing  early  vege- 
tables because  they  are  better  drained  than  the  heavier  soils.  On  soils 
not  naturally  well  drained  artificial  drainage  is  a  profitable  investment. 
It  is  much  better  to  drain  the  soil  by  means  of  ditches  or  tile  drains 
than  to  plant  the  crop  on  ridges.  Drainage  not  only  removes  the  excess 
water,  but  also  allows  the  air  to  enter  the  soil  and  air  is  essential  to  the 
growth  of  beneficial  organisms  which  make  some  of  the  nutrients  available 
to  the  plants.  Drainage  also  allows  the  soils  to  warm  up  earlier  in  the 
spring,  thus  favoring  earlier  preparation  and  planting. 

Plowing. — Soils  for  vegetables  should  be  deep,  therefore,  deep  plow- 
ing should  be  practiced  where  practicable.  The  deeper  the  soil  the  more 
moisture  it  will  hold  and  the  greater  the  feeding  area  of  the  roots.  A 
soil  that  has  been  plowed  only  a  few  inches  deep  should  be  deepened 
gradually,  because  too  much  of  the  subsoil  turned  to  the  surface  is  usually 
injurious.  It  is  best  to  deepen  the  soil  by  plowing  an  inch  deeper  each  year 
until  the  desired  depth  is  reached.  A  depth  of  8,  10  or  even  12  inches  is 
desirable  on  most  soils  used  for  vegetables,  but  this  depth  is  not  necessary 
on  muck  soils. 

The  time  for  plowing  depends  somewhat  on  the  kind  of  soil  and  on  the 
climatic  conditions.  Fall  plowing  is  desirable  on  all  soils  where  it  can  be 
practiced  and  especially  where  sod  is  to  be  turned  under.  The  advantages 
of  fall  plowing  are:  (1)  To  reduce  erosion  by  collecting  water  in  the 
unbroken  furrows;  (2)  to  improve  the  physical  condition  of  heavy  soils  by 
exposing  them  to  frost  action;  (3)  to  aid  in  the  control  of  insect  pests  by 
exposing  them  to  the  weather;  (4)  to  relieve  the  pressure  of  spring  work; 
(5)  to  make  possible  the  earlier  preparation  of  the  soil  for  planting;  (6) 
to  bring  about  the  decay  of  coarse  vegetable  matter  turned  under. 
Coarse  material  turned  under  in  the  spring  is  of  little  value  to  early 
crops  and  may  be  actually  injurious  by  cutting  off  the  capillary  movement 
of  water.  Fall  plowing  in  the  South  is  not  as  desirable  as  in  the  North 
due  to  the  loss  by  leaching  where  the  soil  does  not  freeze.  In  the  South  the 
effects  of  freezing  and  of  alternate  freezing  and  thawing  are  not  as  impor- 
tant as  in  the  North.  Where  shallow  plowing  is  practiced,  as  in  many 
regions  of  the  South,  fall  plowing  is  not  desirable,  especially  on  hilly 
land  because  the  whole  furrow  slice  often  slides  down  the  hill  and  leaves 
the  subsoil  exposed.  Sandy  or  sandy  loam  soils  are  not  as  much  bene- 
fitted as  clay  soils  by  fall  plowing  even  in  the  North  because  frost  action 
is  not  especially  important  on  soils  that  are  naturally  friable. 

Spring  plowing  should  be  done  as  early  as  the  soil  will  permit,  but  great 
care  should  be  exercised  not  to  plow  when  the  land  is  too  wet.  This  is 
especially  important  on  clay  soils.  No  soil,  containing  a  considerable 
portion  of  clay,  should  be  plowed  when  wet  nor  should  such  a  soil  be 


16  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

allowed  to  get  too  dry  before  plowing.  If  plowed  too  wet  such  soils  will 
puddle  and  bake  and  will  be  very  difficult  to  get  into  good  condition.  If 
allowed  to  get  too  dry,  clayey  soils  break  up  in  hard  lumps  which  are 
difficult  to  pulverize  by  harrowing.  A  soil  is  in  good  mechanical 
condition  for  plowing  if  after  being  compacted  in  the  hand  it  gradually 
crumbles  when  the  pressure  is  released.  If  it  is  moist  enough  to  retain 
its  form  after  the  pressure  is  released  it  is  too  wet  for  plowing. 

Harrowing. — After  spring  and  summer  plowing  the  ground  should  be 
harrowed  as  soon  as  possible  to  make  the  surface  loose  and  friable.  The 
condition  of  the  soil  should  determine  the  type  of  harrow  to  use  immedi- 
ately after  plowing.  A  disk  harrow  is  especially  valuable  on  heavy  clay 
soils  and  on  sod  land  because  it  thoroughly  pulverizes  the  soil  to  a 
considerable  depth.  After  disking  the  soil  is  usually  smoothed  by  a  spike- 
tooth,  Acme,  or  spring-tooth  harrow.  The  spike-tooth  harrow  is  satis- 
factory for  leveling  and  smoothing  the  surface  but  is  a  poor  implement  for 
pulverizing  the  soil  as  the  teeth  do  not  go  deeply  enough  and  clods  and  lumps 
pass  between  the  teeth.  The  spring-tooth  harrow  is  an  important  imple- 
ment on  stony  ground.  It  is  a  good  pulverizer  and  leveler.  The  Acme 
harrow  is  a  good  implement  because  it  not  only  pulverizes  the  soil  to  a 
considerable  depth,  but  also  leaves  the  surface  smooth.  It  is  not  satis- 
factory on  stony  ground.  The  Meeker  smoothing  harrow  is  almost 
indispensible  in  intensive  gardening  as  a  finishing  harrow.  It  is  not  at 
all  satisfactory  for  anything  except  to  fine  and  smooth  the  surface,  but 
should  be  in  more  general  use  for  this  purpose.  The  Meeker  leaves  the 
surface  in  as  good  condition  as  a  garden  rake  and  is  much  more  econom- 
ical. It  pulverizes  the  soil  to  the  depth  of  2  or  3  inches,  breaks 
up  the  smallest  clods  and  b}^  means  of  an  adjustable  board  across  the 
middle  it  levels  the  soil  and  leaves  it  in  a  smooth  condition.  This  harrow 
is  often  used  just  before  seed  sowing  and  transplanting. 

The  thoroughness  with  which  the  soil  is  prepared  before  planting 
determines  to  a  large  extent  the  ease  and  efficiency  of  cultivation,  but  no 
amount  of  cultivation  will  make  up  for  poor  preparation.  Timeliness  is  of 
the  greatest  importance  in  all  operations  concerned  with  soil  preparation 
and  cultivation.  The  moisture  content  of  the  soil  determines  to  a  con- 
siderable extent  the  efficiency  of  the  work  done  by  the  harrow.  If  the 
soil  is  too  dry  a  large  percentage  of  lumps  will  not  be  crushed  and  if  too 
wet  the  soil  will  become  puddled.  Harrowing  the  soil  almost  immediately 
after  plowing  will  prevent  surface  baking  and  reduce  the  loss  of  moisture 
by  evaporation  as  the  loose  soil  checks  the  upward  flow  of  moistur(\ 
In  summer,  harrowing  immediately  after  plowing  is  of  much  more 
importance  than  in  early  spring  because  usually  there  is  ample  moisture 
in  the  soil  early  in  the  spring,  but  very  seldom  is  this  the  case  in  mid- 
summer or  late  summer.  Of  course,  the  foregoing  statements  refer  to 
humid  regions.     In  irrigated  regions  it  is  always  important  to  harrow 


SOILS  AND  SOIL  PREPARATION  17 

the  land  to  prevent  loss  of  moisture  since  water  is  expensive  and  often 
scarce. 

Dragging  and  Rolling. — Heavy  soils  often  break  up  in  clods  and 
lumps,  which  are  very  difficult  to  crumble  with  any  type  of  harrow.  By 
use  of  a  heavy  drag  or  roller  the  lumps  may  be  crushed  with  comparative 
ease.  In  preparing  the  soil  late  in  the  season  the  drag  is  often  used 
immediately  after  the  plow,  and  then  followed  with  the  disk  or  spring- 
tooth  harrow.  In  some  instances  the  drag  or  roller  is  used  before  and 
after  the  harrow  in  order  to  crush  the  lumps  brought  to  the  surface  by 
the  harrow.  The  main  use  of  the  drag  or  roller  on  heavy  soils  is  to  ci'ush 
the  lumps,  but  on  light  soils  both  are  often  used  to  pack  and  smooth 
the  soil.  On  muck  soil  the  usual  practice  is  to  use  a  drag  or  planker, 
as  it  is  often  called,  just  before  planting  in  order  to  level  and  smooth  the 
surface.  In  this  case  the  drag  need  not  be  as  heavy  as  when  used  for 
lump  crushing,  unless  packing  of  the  soil  is  also  an  important 
consideration. 


CHAPTER  III 
MANURES 

Stable  manure  or  barnyard  manure  was  practically  the  only  fertilizing 
material  applied  to  the  soil  in  the  early  days  of  commercial  gardening  in 
the  United  States.  In  fact  it  is  still  the  main  reliance  of  market  gardeners 
in  most  sections.  However,  with  the  increase  in  acreage  of  land  planted 
to  vegetables  and  the  decrease  of  horses  in  cities  the  manure  supply  is 
inadequate  to  furnish  sufficient  fertilizing  material,  or  sufficient  humus  to 
keep  up  production.  From  what  has  been  said  it  is  evident  that  the 
greatest  economy  in  the  care  and  use  of  manure  should  be  practiced. 
Under  present  prevailing  methods  market  gardeners  arc  especially 
dependent  upon  the  use  of  manure  to  supply  humus. 

With  high-priced  land,  growers  must  follow  intensive  methods  and 
utihze  their  land  to  the  fullest  extent  for  growing  money  crops.  These 
money  crops  occupy  the  land  practically  throughout  the  growing  season, 
so  that  it  has  not  seemed  practicable  to  most  gardeners  to  grow  a  green 
crop  to  turn  under.  This,  however,  will  have  to  be  done  or  else  the 
vegetable  growing  industry  must  move  farther  from  the  cities  where 
land  is  less  expensive  in  order  that  soil-improving  crops  can  be  grown 
economically. 

Manure  is  of  value  as  a  source  of  humus,  as  a  carrier  of  nitrogen, 
l^hosphorus  and  potash  and  as  a  promoter  of  useful  organisms. 

Manure  as  a  Source  of  Humus. — Vegetable  growers  would  not  be 
justified  in  buying  manure  for  its  nutrient  value  alone  under  most 
conditions.  The  elements,  nitrogen,  phosphorus  and  potash  can  ])e 
bought  more  cheaply  in  chemical  fertilizers  than  in  manure  when  the 
cost  of  hauling  and  applying  are  taken  into  consideration.  Manure, 
however,  is  the  most  valuable  source  of  humus  available  and  some  form 
of  organic  matter  is  necessary  to  keep  the  soil  in  good  condition.  Manure 
improves  clay  soils  by  making  them  looser  and  more  friable,  thus  improv- 
ing drainage  and  aeration.  It  improves  sandy  soils  by  filling  spaces 
between  the  soil  particles  with  humus  and  therefore  makes  them  more 
retentive  of  moisture.  By  heavy  applications  of  manure  to  sandy  soils 
vegetable  growers  are  able  to  produce  good  crops  which  would  be  impos- 
sible without  manure  or  some  other  source  of  humus. 

Manure  as  a  Carrier  of  Nitrogen,  Phosphorus  and  Potash. — As  a 
carrier  of  nitrogen,  phosphorus  and  potash  the  value  of  the  mamu-e 
depends,  (1)  upon  the  kind  of  manure,  (2)  the  amount  and  kind  of  bedding 

18 


MANURES  19 

or  other  material  mixed  with  it  and  (3)  the  care  the  manure  has  had 
before  being  apphed  to  the  land. 

Hart  (62)  of  the  Wisconsin  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  gives 
the  average  composition  of  fresh  manure  including  both  solid  and  liquid 
excrement  of  farm  animals  as  shown  in  Table  II. 

Table  II. — Average  Composition  of  Fresh  Manures 

.    .      ,  Water,  Nitrogen,        Phosphoric         Potash, 

Animal  '  ^  -j  J  \ 

per  cent      '      per  cent       acid,  per  cent        per  cent 


A  ton  of  horse  manure  of  average  composition  contains  approxi- 
mately 10  pounds  nitrogen,  5  pounds  phosphoric  acid  and  10  pounds  of 
potash.  Hen  manure,  analysis  of  which,  is  not  given  in  the  above  table 
contains  abovit  55  per  cent  water,  1  per  cent  nitrogen,  0.80  per  cent 
phosphoric  acid  and  0.40  per  cent  potash.  From  the  standpoint  of 
nutrient  value  hen  manure  ranks  first  and  sheep  manure  second.  Horse 
manure,  however,  is  the  only  kind  commonly  available  by  purchase  to 
vegetable  growers.  The  other  manures  are  produced  mainly  on  farms 
and  are  used  there,  whereas  horse  manure  is  produced  also  in  cities  and 
is  sold  to  market  gardeners  and  others. 

Manure  as  a  Promoter  of  Useful  Organisms. — Manure  has  some  value 
in  addition  to  its  humus  and  its  nitrogen,  phosphorus  and  potash  but  this 
additional  value  is  hard  to  estimate.  It  contains  organisms  which  break 
down  the  organic  matter  of  the  manure  itself  and  aids  in  the  decomposi- 
tion of  the  humus  in  the  soil.  In  the  decomposition  of  organic  matter 
acids  are  set  free,  which  act  on  some  of  the  mineral  compounds  and  make 
them  more  readily  available  to  the  growing  plants.  On  new  muck  soil 
manure  seems  to  have  a  beneficial  effect  greater  than  can  be  accounted  for 
on  the  basis  of  the  important  chemical  elements  contained  in  the  manure. 
This  effect  may  be  due  to  the  organisms  present  in  the  manure,  acting  on 
the  organic  constituents  of  the  muck  soil,  especially  in  changing  the 
organic  nitrogen  to  nitrates  which  are  available  to  plants.  It  is  well 
known  that  decaying  manure  contains  large  number  of  organisms,  includ- 
ing bacteria,  yeasts  and  molds. 

Losses  in  Manure. — The  analyses  given  in  Table  II  do  not  take  into 
consideration  losses  incident  to  the  ordinary  handling  of  manure.  There 
are  three  causes  of  losses:  (1)  Loss  of  urine  by  drainage  from  the  stable 


20  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

or  yard,  (2)  loss  of  soluble  material  by  leaching,  (3)  loss  of  nitrogen  by 
fermentation.  About  50  per  cent  of  the  fertilizing  value  of  the  excrement 
from  farm  animals  is  in  the  urine,  therefore  every  effort  should  be  made 
to  save  it.  The  elements  are  present  in  a  more  readily  available  form  in  the; 
urine  than  in  the  solid  excrement.  The  loss  of  nutrients  by  leaching 
may  be  as  much  as  60  to  70  per  cent  in  G  months  if  unprotected.  It  is 
safe  to  say  that  under  the  usual  careless  manner  of  storing  farm  manures 
out  of  doors  at  least  50  per  cent  of  the  value  of  the  nutrients  is  lost. 
Part  of  this  loss,  if  not  most  of  it,  can  be  prevented  by  proper  piling 
to  prevent  rain  water  from  running  through  the  pile  and  nutrients 
being  lost  in  drainage  water.  The  loss  by  leaching  is  due  to  the  loss  of 
nitrogen,  phosphorus  and  potassium  compounds  in  both  liquid  and  solid 
portions  of  the  manure. 

The  loss  by  fermentation  is  in  the  nitrogen  compounds.  This  loss 
is  due  to  changes  brought  about  by  micro-organisms,  especially  bacteria, 
yeasts  and  molds  breaking  down  the  organic  compounds  into  ammonia 
which  escapes  into  the  air  as  gas.  This  gives  the  characteristic  odor  to 
fermenting  manure.  Under  most  favorable  conditions  about  one-sixth 
of  the  nitrogen  in  manure  is  lost  during  decomposition  and  under  average 
conditions  probably  at  least  one-half  of  the  nitrogen  found  in  fresh 
manure  is  lost  before  it  reaches  the  soil. 

Fresh  Manure  Versus  Rotted  Manure. — From  the  discussion  of 
the  losses  in  storing  it  w^ould  seem  to  be  the  best  practice  to  apply  manure 
to  the  land  as  soon  as  produced,  but  this  cannot  always  be  done  nor  is  it 
always  desirable.  Among  the  advantages  of  using  manure  while  it  is 
fresh  are:  (1)  There  is  little  loss  of  valuable  materials  through  leaching 
and  decomposition,  (2)  some  insoluble  materials  in  the  soil  are  made  more 
soluble  by  the  decomposing  manure  coming  into  contact  with  the  soil 
particles,  (3)  desirable  organisms  are  supplied  in  the  fresh  manure,  (4) 
the  texture  of  heavy  soils  is  improved,  and  (5)  the  growth  of  foliage  is 
favored  and  therefore  the  yield  of  crops  grown  for  their  stems  and  leaves 
is  increased.  Among  the  disadvantages  of  fresh  manure  might  be  men- 
tioned: (1)  Unfavorable  effects  on  the  soil  when  applied  in  large  quan- 
tities; (2)  burning  effect  on  plants,  due  to  rapid  decomposition  of  urine  in 
manure,  especially  in  open  porous  soils;  (3)  carries  weed  seeds  and  germs 
of  plant  diseases. 

Decomposed  manure  contains  phosphorus  and  potassium  in  more 
available  forms  and  in  larger  percentages  than  in  fresh  manure.  The 
larger  percentages  are  due  to  the  fact  that  the  organic  matter  has  been 
reduced  in  amount  by  decomposition.  The  nitrogen  in  decomposed 
manure  is  not  as  readily  available  as  that  in  the  urine  of  fresh  manure. 
Some  of  the  advantages  of  decomposed  manure  are;  (1)  More  even  action 
and  more  evenly  balanced  combination  of  nitrogen,  phosphorus  and 
potash,  (2)  less  likelihood  to  cause  burning,  (3)  smaller  bulk  to  handle  for 


MANURES  21 

same  amount  of  fertilizing  materials,  (4)  weed  seeds  largely  destroyed 
during  decomposition  and  (5)  loss  interference  with  soil  preparation  and 
cultivation. ' 

Composting  Manures. — Vegetable  growers  very  often  pile  manure  in 
low  flat  piles  and  allow  it  to  decay  before  applying  it  to  the  land.  This 
is  often  necessary  since  the  manure  is  hauled  when  it  is  not  practicable  to 
apply  it  to  the  soil  due  to  the  land  being  occupied  by  crops,  or  for  other 
reasons.  In  addition  to  this,  well-rotted  manure  is  preferred  for  many 
crops,  due  to  the  fact  that  it  can  be  better  incorporated  with  the  soil  and 
interferes  less  with  planting  and  cultivating  than  coarse  manure. 

When  manure  is  piled  and  allowed  to  decay  before  using  great  care 
should  be  given  to  prevent  leaching  of  the  soluble  materials  and  the 
loss  of  humus  and  nitrogen  through  fermentation.  These  can  be  pre- 
vented by  stacking  manure  in  compact,  flat  piles  not  less  than  four  feet 
deep.  With  this  depth  there  is  little  loss  by  leaching  provided  the  sides 
and  ends  are  nearly  perpendicular  and  by  keeping  the  manure  compact 
and  moist  fermentation  is  controlled  and  loss  of  nitrogen  is  kept  down. 
It  is  aften  necessary  and  is  practically  always  desirable,  to  apply  water  to 
the  pile  of  manure  to  prevent  "fire  fanging."  The  manure  should 
be  turned  two  or  three  times  at  intervals  during  the  period  it  is  piled  in 
order  to  have  uniform  decomposition.  In  turning  the  manure,  that  from 
the  inside  of  the  old  pile  should  be  placed  on  the  top  or  sides  of  the 
new  one. 

Piling  manure  as  described  is  often  termed  "composting,"  but  in  the 
true  sense  of  the  word  a  compost  is  a  mixture  of  materials  as  manure  and 
soil,  or  manure  and  leaves  or  other  htter.  In  making  a  compost  fresh 
manure  is  piled  in  alternate  layers  with  absorbent  materials.  One 
method  of  making  a  compost  heap  is  to  start  with  a  few  inches  of  loose  soil 
or  other  absorbent  material  as  a  foundation  and  place  on  this  a  layer  of 
fresh  manure,  then  alternating  layers  of  absorbent  material  and  manure. 
Muck  and  peat  are  good  absorbent  materials  and  are  used  to  a  considerable 
extent  in  making  compost  in  some  of  the  European  countries.  In  many 
parts  of  the  United  States  these  materials  could  be  used  to  good  advan- 
tage. The  details  of  making  a  compost  heap  vary  in  respect  to  absorbent 
materials  used,  thickness  of  the  layers,  depth  of  the  pile,  etc.  Sufficient 
absorbent  material  should  be  used  to  absorb  the  soluble  material  and  the 
gases  from  the  manure.  The  entire  surface  of  the  pile  should  be  covered 
with  a  layer  of  soil  to  prevent  loss  of  ammonia. 

In  making  a  compost  heap  it  is  advisable  to  make  use  of  all  valuable 
material  that  is  available.  Trimmings  from  vegetables,  unless  seriously 
diseased,  garbage,  straw,  hay  that  is  not  suitable  for  feed,  weeds,  lawn 
clippings  and  leaves  may  all  be  added  to  the  compost  heap. 

In  a  few  weeks  after  the  pile  is  completed  it  should  be  turned  over  and 
uniformly  mixed  and  again  covered  with  a  layer  of  absorbent,  unless  it  is 


22  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

to  be  used  at  once.  It  is  desirable  to  turn  the  i)il('  two  or  three  times 
before  the  compost  is  appHed  to  the  land. 

Time  to  Apply  Manure. — The  proper  time  to  apply  manure  depends  on 
the  kind  and  age  of  the  manure,  the  stage  of  its  decomposition,  the  crops 
to  be  grown  and  the  rotations  to  be  followed.  When  cow  manure  is  to 
be  applied  it  should  be  plowed  under  as  far  in  advance  of  planting  as  con- 
venient. Fall  application  is  desirable  if  the  land  is  to  be  plowed  before 
winter.  In  the  North  it  is  not  desirable  to  leave  manure  on  the  surface  of 
the  ground  during  the  winter  on  account  of  loss  due  to  leaching  when  the 
ground  is  frozen.  Where  vegetables  are  grown  in  rotation  with  general 
farm  crops  it  is  often  best  to  apply  the  manure  to  the  crop  preceding  the 
vegetable  crop.  Well-rotted  manure,  especially  in  small  applications, 
may  be  applied  to  best  advantage  after  the  land  is  plowed  but  before 
harrowing.  For  hen  and  sheep  manure  this  is  unquestionably  the  Ix^st 
practice. 

Amount  and  Method  of  Application. — The  rate  of  application  depends 
upon  the  suppl}^  of  manure,  the  kinds  of  crops  to  be  grown  and  the  char- 
acter and  richness  of  the  soil.  Where  the  suppy  is  rather  limited  it  is 
desirable  to  use  light  applications,  10  to  20  tons  per  acre,  and  supplement 
this  with  commercial  fertilizers.  In  fact  20  to  25  tons  per  acre  is  probably 
as  much  as  can  be  used  economically  for  most  crops  under  the  present 
conditions.  However,  in  very  intensive  gardening  where  two  or  more 
crops  are  grown  in  one  yea.Y  40  to  50  tons  may  be  used  to  advantage.  It 
should  be  borne  in  mind  that  manure  is  not  a  balanced  fertilizer  and  for 
this  reason  it  is  more  economical  to  use  a  moderate  application  and  sup- 
plement it  with  chemical  fertilizers. 

Under  most  conditions  broadcast  application  is  best.  When  coarse 
manure  is  used  it  is  usually  applied  broadcast  before  plowing  and  when 
well-rotted  manure  is  used  it  is  quite  generally  broadcasted  after  plowing 
and  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  surface  soil  by  harrowing.  A  manure 
spreader  can  be  used  to  advantage  where  the  amount  of  manure  used 
justifies  the  investment.  The  spreader  saves  a  large  amount  of  labor  and 
scatters  the  manure  more  uniformly  over  the  surface  than  is  possible  by 
hand  spreading. 

For  some  crops,  such  as  cucumbers  and  melons,  manure  is  often 
applied  in  drills  or  hills.  There  is  some  advantage  in  this  where  the  soil 
is  poor  and  the  amount  of  manure  is  limited  because  it  secures  a  greater 
concentration  of  manure  in  the  region  of  the  roots.  Some  advantage  is 
also  claimed  for  the  drill  or  hill  method  of  applying  fresh  manure  for  its 
heating  effect  on  the  soil,  which  hastens  germination  of  seeds  of  cucumbers 
and  melons  and  forces  them  into  vigorous  growth.  It  is  doubtful, 
however,  if  the  drill  and  hill  method  of  application  often  pays  for  the 
extra  cost  of  applying.  Better  distribution  is  secured  by  broadcasting 
for  most  crops. 


MANURES 


23 


Manure  Economy  Experiments. — Since  the  problem  of  maintaining 
production  of  vegetables  with  a  decreased  manure  supply  is  one  of  the 
most  serious  ones  confronting  vegetable  growers,  several  experiment 
stations  have  undertaken  definite  investigational  work  looking  to  the 
solution  of  this  problem.  The  experiments  of  the  Rhode  Island  Station, 
the  Virginia  Truck  Experiment  Station  and  the  Ohio  Experiment  Station 
are  notable  examples  of  this  type  of  work.  In  all  of  these  experiments  the 
substituting  of  green-manure  crops  and  commercial  fertilizers  for  a  part  or 
all  of  the  manure,  is  one  of  the  main  problems  studied.  However,  other 
valuable  data  on  plant  nutrition  are  being  accumulated. 

Rhode  Island  Experiments. — Hartwell  and  Crandall  (66)  have 
reported  on  6  years'  results,  secured  at  the  Rhode  Island  Station,  on  the 
substitution  of  fertihzers,  green  manure  and  peat  for  manure.  They 
give  the  following  description  of  the  experiments  and  of  the  soil: 

This  field  experiment  comprises  the  following  3-year  rotation  of  two  cash 
crops  each  year  (W) ;  and  the  same  rotation  modified  to  include  the  crops  (names 
in  italics)  which  are  plowed  under  for  green  manure  (X,  Y,  Z). 


Rotation 


First  year 
(1)" 


Second  year 

(2) 


Third  year 
(3) 


Cabbage — beets 
Cabbage — vetch  and  rye 
Cabbage — rye 
Cabbage — wheal 


Tomatoes — spinach  Lettuce — celery 

Tomatoes — rape  i  Oats — celery 

Tomatoes — sweet  clover    i  — celery 
Tomatoes — red  clover        I  — celery 

I 


An  annual  spring  application  of  32  tons  of  stable  manure  alone  is  compared 
with  different  combinations  of  fertilizer  chemicals  used  in  connection  with  green 
manures,  peat  and  smaller  amounts  of  stable  manure. 

The  soil  is  classified  as  Miami  silt  loam.  It  is  glacial  drift  of  granitic  origin 
.  .  .  The  surface  soil  is  quite  retentive  of  moisture,  and  early  spring  operations 
are  retarded  thereby.  The  subsoil  is  gravelly  and  affords  natural  drainage .  .  . 
Prior  to  the  beginning  of  this  experiment,  the  land  had  been  used  uniformly  for 
farm  crops  and  was  in  no  more  than  fair  condition .  - .    . 

Results  from  plats  treated  alike  indicate  that  an  average  difference  of  about 
5  per  cent  is  liable  to  occur  in  case  of  plats  in  close  proximity,  whereas  the  differ- 
ence may  amount  to  10  per  cent  in  plats  farther  removed  from  each  other .    .    . 

Each  plat  is  21  by  69.14  feet  and  comprises  one-thirtieth  of  an  acre.  The 
paths  between  the  ends  and  sides  of  the  plats  are  3  feet  wide ,    .    . 

Before  beginning  the  experiment,  the  soil  was  quite  acid  and  4.5  tons  of  ground 
limestone  per  acre  were  added  at  once  in  preparation  for  certain  of  the  crops  which 
are  sensitive  to  acid  soil  conditions.  To  other  crops,  one-third  or  two-thirds 
this  amount  was  added.  By  the  end  of  the  sixth  year  or  during  the  first  two 
rounds  of  the  rotations.  .  .  every  plat,  except  the  peat  plats,  had  received  12 
tons  of  ground  limestone,  and  the  soil  was  practically  neutral. 


24  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

The  sour,  moist  peat  is  composted  for  at  least  over  winter  with  200  pounds 
of  hydratcd  Hme  or  600  pounds  of  Hmestone  per  cord  of  the  j^eat.  This  hme  is  in 
addition  to  the  regular  amount  applied  to  the  plats. 

The  average  regular  application  for  the  first  crops  of  rotation  W  has  been 
equivalent  to  ^i  ton  of  a  4-10-2  fertilizer  whereas  the  extra  nitrogen  plat  received 
twice  as  much  nitrogen,  the  extra  phosphorus  plat  about  six-tenths  more  phos- 
phorus and  the  extra  potassium  plat  about  twice  as  much  potassium. 

The  regular  application  for  the  second  crops  of  rotation  W,  which  receive 
no  new  appUcation  of  stable  manure,  has  been  equivalent  to  }y4  ton  of  a  4-7-6 
fertilizer  with  the  nitrogen  more  than  doubled  on  the  extra  nitrogen  plat,  the 
phosphorus  increased  a  half  on  the  extra  phosphorus  plat  and  the  potassium 
increased  two-thirds  on  the  extra  potassium  plat. 

In  the  green-manure  rotations,  X,  Y  and  Z  the  regular  applications  for  the 
early  cabbages  and  tomatoes  have  averaged  1  ton  of  4.5-8-2  fertilizer  with  four- 
fifths  more  nitrogen,  a  half  more  phosphorus  and  twice  as  much  potassium  on 
the  plats  receiving  extra  amounts  of  these  elements. 

The  green-manure  crops  which  were  growing  at  the  same  time  received  an 
equivalent  of  600  pounds  of  a  7-9-0  fertilizer  for  the  regular  application,  and  an 
extra  amount  of  one  or  another  ingredient  on  certain  plats. 

The  regular  application  for  the  late  celery  in  the  green-manure  rotation  has 
been  equivalent  to  2,500  pounds  of  4.5-7-3  fertilizer  with  about  a  half  more  on 
each  of  the  plats  receiving  an  extra  amount  of  an  ingredient.  The  green-manure 
crops  growing  at  the  same  time  received  a  regular  application  equivalent  to  800 
pounds  of  5-6-3  fertilizer. 

The  yields  under  the  various  treatments  mentioned  are  given  in 
Table  III  for  cabbage,  tomatoes  and  celery.  The  figures  are  the  average 
for  the  6  years  1916  to  1921  and  are  computed  on  the  acre  basis,  consider- 
ing only  the  marketable  part  of  the  crop. 

The  yields  of  beets,  spinach  and  lettuce  in  rotation  W  are  given  in 
Table  IV. 

Hartwell  and  Crandall  summarize  the  results  of  their  work  as  follows: 

The  yields  of  the  early  crops  in  this  rotation  were  larger  with  16  tons  of  manure 
and  the  4:10:2  fertilizer  than  with  32  tons  of  manure  without  the  fertilizer, 
namely;  cabbages,  14  per  cent  increase,  tomatoes  and  lettuce,  25  per  cent  increase. 
A  comparison  of  the  augmented  fertilizer,  with  the  4:10:2  shows  that  additional 
nitrogen  increased  cabbages  23  per  cent,  ripe  tomatoes  7  per  cent,  but  lettuce 
none.  Additional  phosphorus  increased  cabbage  9  per  cent,  ripe  tomatoes  none 
and  lettuce  11  per  cent.  There  was  no  increase  due  to  the  extra  amount  of 
potassium.  The  peat  and  fertilizer  compared  with  the  manure  and  standard 
fertilizer  gave  about  the  same  yield  of  cabbage,  a  third  less  tomatoes,  and  very 
much  less  lettuce. 

The  late  crops  of  this  same  stable  manure  rotation  receive  no  fresh  application 
of  manure.  The  first  comparison  then  is  between  the  residues  from  the  spring 
application  of  32  tons  of  manure  alone,  and  of  the  16  tons  supplemented  with  a 
second  appHcation  of  fertilizer  cltemicals  equivalent  to  a  half  ton  of  4:7:6  fertilizer. 


N.  C.  State  CoUeg* 


MANURES 


25 


Table  III. — Yields  of  Cabbage,  Tomatoes  and  Celery  under  Stable  Manure 
Rotation  (W)  and  Green  Manure  Rotations  (X,  Y,  Z) 

(From  R.  I.  Bull.  188)  Figures  rearranged  by   author 


Rotation 


Manure  and  fertilizer 


Yields  of  crops  per  acre 


Cabbages,  { 
bbl.,  80  lbs. 


Tomatoes 
(ripe)  bu. 
(56  lbs.) 


Celery- 


Late, 
doz. 


Weight, 
lbs. 


32  tons  manure 

16  tons  manure  +  chemicals* 
16    tons    manure  +  chemicals, 

extra  N  f 

16     tons     manure     chemicals, 

extra  P 

16    tons    manure  +  chemicals, 

extra  K  

Peat  +  chemicals,   extra  N 

8  tons  manure  +  chemicals.  . .  . 

Chemicals 

Chemicals,  extra  N 

Chemicals,  extra  P 

Chemicals 

Chemicals,  extra  K 

Chemicals 


263 

302 

374 

328 

310 
267 
319 
293 
317 
324 
305 
294 
287 


471 

594 

636 

589 

511 
315 
336 
278 
297 
280 
316 
333 
364 


841 

854 

954 

875 

910 
670 
740 
691 
689 
665 
680 
712 
682 


16,200 
16,800 

19,500 

17,600 

18,100 
12,200 
14,100 
12,600 
13,000 
12,500 
12,500 
13,100 
12,400 


*  Chemicals  =  ^i  ton  of  a  4-10-2  fertilizer  for  early  crops  and  >^  ton  of  a  4-7-6 
for  the  late  crops. 

t  Chemicals  in  green  manure  rotations  (X,  Y,  Z)  =  1  ton  of  4.5-8-2  for  early 
crops  and  lli  tons  of  a  4.5-7-5  for  the  cele^3^ 

I  Average  yields  of  cabbage  in  rotation  W  is  for  5  years,  1917-1921. 


Table    IV. — Acre    Yields    of    Crops   Grown   Only   on   the   Stable    Manure 
Rotation    (W) 


Yields  of  crops  per  acre 

Manure  and  fertilizer 

Beets,  late, 
bu.  (50  lbs.) 

Spinach,  late, 
bu.  (12  lbs.) 

Lettuce,  early 

Boxes, 
(18  hds.) 

Lbs. 

32  tons  manure 

196 
242 
287 
264 
251 
170 

464 

518 
646 
575 
626 
277 

801 
1,001 
1,009 
1,121 

712 
63 

16,500 
19,000 
19,000 
19,900 
15,200 
8  100 

16  tons  manure  +  chemicals* , 

16  tons  manure  +  chemicals,  extra  N .  . 
16  tons  manure  +  chemicals,  extra  P. . 
16  tons  manure  +  chemicals,  extra  K. 
Peat  +  chemicals,  extra  N 

*  Chemicals  =  %  ton  of 
4-7-6  for  the  late  crops. 


a  4-10-2  fertilizer  for  the  early  crop  and  3^  ton  of  a 


20  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

The  seasons  were  frequently  too  sliort  for  the  production  of  full  crops  of  beets 
and  spinach.  The  fertilizer  and  half  ration  of  manure  residues  produced  23 
per  cent  greater  yield  of  beets  and  12  per  cent  more  spinach  than  only  the  residues 
from  the  maximum  spring  application  of  manure.  There  was  practically  no 
increase,  however,  in  the  case  of  late  celery.  By  adding  extra  nitrogen  to  this 
second  fertilizer,  beets  were  increased  18  per  cent,  spinach  25  per  cent,  and  celery 
16  per  cent.  By  augmenting  the  phosphorus  the  yield  of  each  crop  was  increased 
around  10  per  cent,  but  there  was  not  much  effect  from  an  increase  in  the  potas- 
sium except  that  the  yield  of  spinach  was  increased  21  per  cent.  The  jaelds 
from  the  peat  plats  were  very  inferior. 

The  foregoing  rotation  is  modified  to  grow,  for  green  manures,  winter  vetch, 
rye  and  wheat  in  place  of  late  beets;  and  sweet  clover,  red  clover,  and  rape  in 
the  autumn  followed  by  oats  in  the  spring,  in  place  of  late  spinach  and  early 
lettuce.  Tomatoes,  then,  have  followed  the  first  group  of  green  manures,  and 
celery  the  second  group,  in  strict  comparison  with  the  unmodified  rotation. 
Cabbages  have  followed  celery  on  all  plats. 

With  one  exception  the  green-manure  plats  received  no  stable  manure.  The 
early  cabbages  and  tomatoes  have  had  the  equivalent  of  a  ton  of  4.5:  8:2  fertilizer, 
and  the  late  celery  the  equivalent  of  2,500  pounds  of  4.5:7:3  fertiUzer.  Only 
about  10  per  cent  increase  was  obtained  in  any  case  by  an  extra  amount  of  any  of 
the  ingredients  in  the  foregoing  fertilizers,  and  usually  there  was  no  positive 
increase. 

The  green-manure  plats  yielded  more  cabbages  than  the  plats  receiving  only 
manure,  but  about  a  fourth  less  tomatoes  and  celery.  Where  in  one  case,  8  tons 
of  manure  were  added  each  spring  to  supplement  the  green  manures  and  fertiUzer 
there  was  a  slight  gain  in  yield. 

Less  organic  matter  has  thus  far  been  added  to  the  plats  in  the  green  manures, 
than  in  the  stable  manure.  Some  modifications  have  been  made  in  the  plan  for 
green  manuring  which  are  expected  to  lead  to  increased  production,  especially  an 
interchange  in  the  position  in  the  rotation,  of  rye,  and  wheat  with  the  clovers 
.so  that  the  latter  may  have  more  time  to  become  estabhshed. 

Ohio  Experiments. — Thorne  (163)  has  reported  on  5  years'  results 
(1915-1919)  of  experiments  on  increasing  the  yield  of  truck  crops  at 
the  Washington  County  Experiment  Farm.  The  soil  on  which  these 
experiments  are  conducted  is  alluvial,  deposited  largely  from  over-flow 
of  the  Ohio  River.  Considerable  gravel  is  found  on  the  surface,  having 
been  brought  in  and  deposited  during  floods.  The  area  had  been  used 
for  truck  growing  prior  to  the  time  the  experimental  work  was  started 
and  the  soil  was  considered  "worn  out." 

Thorne  gives  the  following  description  of  the  experiments: 

The  experiments  on  increasing  the  yield  of  truck  crops  occupy  two  i)arallel 
series  of  plats  containing  1/40  acre  each.  Series  A  receives  a  basic  treatment  of 
ground  limestone,  spread  over  all  of  the  land  every  second  season,  at  the  rate  of 
2  tons  per  acre,  and  a  cover  crop,  consisting  of  cowpeas  after  sweet  corn,  cabbage, 
and  tomatoes,  and  rye  after  cucumbers. 


MANURES  27 

Series  B  receives  as  basic  treatment  a  cover  crop  consisting  of  rye  on  part  of 
the  land  and  cowpeas  on  the  remainder,  excepting  plat  21,  which  receives  straw 
mulch. 

Each  series  consists  of  four  blocks  of  16  plats  each  on  which  the  four  crops, 
sweet  corn,  cucumbers,  cabbage  and  tomatoes  are  grown  in  rotation,  each  crop 
being  grown  every  season  in  both  series. 

Tabic  V  gives  the  average  yield  per  year  for  the  5-year  period  1915 
to  1919  in  both  series,  A  and  B. 

A  study  of  table  V  shows  that  in  Series  A,  800  pounds  of  acid 
phosphate,  100  pounds  of  muriate  of  potash  and  320  pounds  of  nitrate 
of  soda  produced  a  larger  yield  of  sweet  corn,  cabbage  and  tomatoes 
than  16  tons  of  manure  alone.  With  cucumbers  the  yields  v^ere  nearly 
equal  under  the  two  treatments.  Manure  at  the  rate  of  16  tons 
per  acre  supplemented  with  400  pounds  of  acid  phosphate  did  not  equal 
the  fertilizer  treatment  mentioned  (plat  6)  on  sweet  corn  and  cabbage 
and  increased  the  yield  only  slightly  on  tomatoes  and  cucumbers.  Most 
of  the  differences  in  yields  are  easily  within  the  range  of  experimental 
error,  but  the  comparisons  are  of  value.  Thorne  (163)  makes  the  follow- 
ing comments  on  the  results  of  this  experiment: 

The  average  value  of  the  crops  grown  on  the  land  receiving  the  basic  treatment 
of  Umestone  and  cover  crops  has  been  $218  per  acre.  That  on  the  land  receiving 
cover  crops  only  as  a  basic  treatment  has  been  $188.  The  combination  of  lime- 
stone and  cover  crop  on  plats  16  and  33  has  produced  total  yields  of  only  $205  and 
$210,  but  these  plats  are  on  the  west  side  of  the  field,  where  the  yields  run  lower 
than  on  the  eastern  three-quarters.  Compared  with  plats  32  and  35,  receiving 
cover  crops  only,  the  liming  of  plat  33  has  apparently  increased  the  yield  by 
$28.70,  or  near  the  same  amount  found  by  comparing  the  yields  from  the  basic 
treatments. 

In  comparing  manure  and  fertilizers  in  this  experiment  it  should 
be  borne  in  mind  that  the  fertilizer  applications  for  the  most  part,  were 
very  small.  The  highest  amount  of  nitrogen  used  in  the  commercial 
fertihzer  plats  (plat  6)  is  equivalent  to  the  amount  of  this  element  found 
in  five  tons  of  average  manure.  The  highest  application  of  potash  (100 
pounds  KCl)  in  commercial  fertilizer  is  equal  to  the  amount  usually 
present  in  5  tons  of  average  manure.  Most  vegetable  growers  use  larger 
amounts  of  nitrogen  and  potash  than  were  used  on  any  of  the  plats  in  this 
experiment,  and  a  better  comparison  could  be  made  had  larger  amounts  of 
commercial  fertilizers  been  applied. 

The  average  value  per  acre  of  the  four  crops  grown  in  this  experiment, 
the  increased  value  due  to  the  manure  and  fertilizer  treatment,  the  cost 
of  treatment  and  the  net  gain  are  given  in  Table  VI.  The  cost  of  the 
treatment  is  based  on  $2.50  per  ton  for  manure,  $20  per  ton  for  acid 
phosphate,  $50  per  ton  for  nitrate  of  soda,  $50  per  ton  for  muriate  of 
potash  and  $6  per  ton  for  ground  limestone.     (Cost  of  treatment  and 


28 


VEGETABLE  CROPS 


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Table  VI. — Average  Annual  Value  of  Truck  Crops  Washington  County  (Ohio) 

Experiment  Farm:  Increase  Due  to  Treatment  and  Net  Gain  or  Loss 

PER  Acre 


Treatment  per 


value 
dollar!; 


Iiirreased 

Cost 

value* 
dollars 

treat- 
ment 

gam 
dollars 


Soil  fertility  series:  Basic  treatment,  limestone 


Unfertilized 

Shed  manure,  16  tons;  acid  phosphate,  400  pounds    .  . 

Shed  manure,  16  tons 

Unfertilized 

City  manure,  16  tons 

Acid  phosphate,  800  pounds,  niur.  potash,  100  pounds 

nitrate  soda,  320  pounds 

Unfertilized 

Acid  phosphate,  400  pounds;  niur.  potash,  50  pounds; 

nitrate  soda,  160  pounds 

Acid  phosphate,  400  pounds;  nitrate  soda,  160  pounds 

Unfertilized 

Acid  phosphate,  400  pounds j 

Nitrate    of    soda,   80   pounds;   sulphate   ammonia,    65  j 

pounds 

Unfertilized 

Nitrate  of  soda,  160  pounds  (in  two  applications) 

Nitrate  of  soda,  160  pounds  (in  one  application) 

Unfertilfzed 


Average  value  from  basic  treatments  only . 


230.16 
289 . 82 
274.06 
221.00 
268.64 

286.30 
221.08 

226.46 
272.00 
220.72 
254.04 

228.10 
216.26 
221.98 
227.64 
205.40 

219.10 


62 .  72 

44.00 

50.00 

40.00 

47.62 

40.00 

63.24 

18.50 

\ 

45.50 

9.25 

51.16 

8.00 

34.80 

4.00 

10.34 

4.00 

9.34 

4.00 

18.62 

i 

4.00 

18.72 
10.00 


7.62 
44.74 


36.25 
43.16 


30 .  80 
6.34 


5.34 
14.62 


Soil  improvement  series:  Basic  treatment,  cover  crop 


21 
22 
23 

24 
25 
26 

27 
28 

i 
29  I 
30 

31 

32 
33 
34 

35 


Straw  mulch 202 .  56     '    14 .  68 

Unfertihzed !  187.88 

Manure,    16   tons;    acid    phosphate,  400  pounds;  mur.'  j 

potash,  .50  pounds;  nitrate  soda,  160  pounds 311.58       113.10 

Manure,  16  tons I  290.40 

Manure,  16  tons;  limestone,  1  ton 306.36 

Manure,   16  tons;  acid  phosphate,  400  pounds;  nitrate 

soda,  160  pounds;  limestone,  1  ton \  331.00      132.52 

Manure,  16  tons 287.56         89.08 

Manure,    16   tons;   acid   phosphate,   400  pounds;   lime- 
stone. 1  ton 31 1 . 80 

Unfertilized 209 .  08 

Acid  phosphate,  400  pounds;  niur.  potash,  50  pounds; 

nitrate  soda,  160  pounds 275 .  40 

Acid  phosphate,   400  pounds,  mur.  potash,  50  pounds; 

nitrate  soda,  160  pounds 28*5.84 

Unfertihzed 188.46 

Limestone,  1  ton 210.40 

Acid  phosphate,  400  pounds;  nitrate  soda,  160  pounds; 

limestone,  1  ton 257.  12 

Unfertilized I  168.18 

Acid  phosphate,  400  pounds;  limestone,  1  ton 207.80 


91.92 
107.88 


113.32 

73.20 
90.50 
28.70 
82.18 
39.62 


Average  value  from  basic  treatment  only 


188.40 


49 

25 

40 

00 

46 

00 

54 

00 

40 

00 

50 

00 

9 

25 

15 

25 

6 

00 

14 

00 

10 

00 

G3.85 
51.92 
61.88 

78.52 
49.08 

63.32 


63.95 
75.25 
22 .  70 
68.18 
29.62 


•  During  the  season  of  1917,  1918  and  1919  sweet  corn  sold  at  average  prices  equivalent  to  \^i,  3  and 
3  cents  a  pound,  respectively;  cucumbers  at  1,  2.8  and  1.8  cents;  cabbage  at  1.4,  4.2  and  2.9  cents  and 
tomatoes  at  3,  3.4  and  5.6  cents.  Taking  the  total  weights  of  the  4  crops  and  the  total  receipts  from  the 
sales  the  average  for  the  period  amounts  to  2).2  cents  a  pound.  Allowins  j-i  cent  a  pound  for  ni  arkcting, 
the  average  values  at  the  farm  are  computed  at  2  cents  a  pound. 


MANURES  31 

net  gain  recalculated  by  author.)  The  price  of  $2.50  per  ton  for  manure 
is  entirely  too  low  considering  the  price  market  gardeners  are  paying  at 
present  (1922)  and  the  cost  of  hauling  and  applying.  The  actual  cost 
would  probably  be  nearer  $5  per  ton  than  $2.50,  but  the  latter  figure 
was  used  by  Thorne. 

A  glance  at  the  above  table  will  show  that  the  highest  net  gain  was 
secured  from  the  complete  fertilizer  plats  in  the  "soil  fertility  series." 
In  the  "soil  improvements  series"  the  net  gain  from  16  tons  of  manure 
plus  400  pounds  of  acid  phosphate,  160  pounds  nitrate  of  soda  and  one 
ton  limestone,  was  slightly  higher  than  that  from  400  pounds  of  acid 
phosphate,  50  pounds  of  nitrate  of  soda  and  one  ton  of  hmestone. 


CHAPTER  IV 
GREEN  MANURES 

Green-manure  crops  are  those  grown  for  the  purpose  of  improving 
the  conditions  of  the  soil  for  the  growth  of  succeeding  crops.  They 
are  sometimes  called  soil-improving  crops  and  cover  crops,  but  the 
latter  term  is  generally  used  for  the  crops  grown  for  the  purpose  of  pro- 
tecting the  soil  during  fall  and  winter. 

Value  of  Green  Manures.— The  beneficial  effects  of  green-manure 
crops  were  known  long  before  it  was  understood  in  what  ways  they  acted 
to  increase  crop  production.  Experiments  have  confirmed  and  explained 
the  fact  that  green-manure  crops  favorably  affect  succeeding  crops. 

Green-manure  crops  may  have  the  following  effects:  (1)  Increase 
organic  matter  in  the  soil,  (2)  conserve  soluble  mineral  nutrients,  (3) 
add  nitrogen  in  case  legumes  are  used,  (4)  transfer  mineral  nutrients 
from  subsoil  to  surface,  (5)  concentrate  the  mineral  nutrients,  (6)  favor- 
ably affect  the  bacterial  life  in  the  soil,  (7)  increase  available  elements 
in  the  soil,  (8)  improve  the  condition  of  the  subsoil. 

For  the  vegetable  growers,  the  use  of  green  crops  to  turn  under  is  advo- 
cated mainly  for  supplying  humus  since  fertilizing  elements  can  be  pur- 
chased in  the  form  of  commercial  fertilizers.  The  chemical  composition 
of  soils,  especially  with  reference  to  the  chemical  elements  usually  needed, 
can  be  changed  much  more  rapidly  than  the  physical  or  mechanical 
condition.  In  many  truck-growing  centers  the  only  available  sources 
of  humus  in  quantity  are  crops  grown  for  this  purpose  and  it  would  be 
impossible  to  maintain  production  without  growing  some  soil-improving 
crops.  With  the  decrease  in  the  available  manure  supply  from  cities 
and  with  the  depletion  of  humus  in  soils  from  cropping  the  use  of  green 
manures  becomes  more  and  more  important.  This  is  recognized  by  many 
gardeners  and  some  soil-improving  crop  is  grown  by  them  every  year 
although  the  practice  is  not  as  general  as  it  must  become.  Continuous 
high  applications  of  commercial  fertilizers  are  justifiable  only  where  the 
humus  content  is  kept  up  by  use  of  green-manure  crops  or  by  use 
of  manure. 

On  the  physical  effects  of  green  manures  Piper  and  Pieters  (116)  have 
the  following  to  say: 

Organic  matter  affects  both  the  texture  and  the  moisture-holding  capacity 
of  soils.     Heavy  clays  are  lightened  and  made  more  porous  and  sandy  soils  are 

32 


GREEN  MANURES  33 

enabled  to  hold  moisture  better.  For  the  best  growth  of  the  roots  of  most  crop 
plants  both  air  and  moisture  are  needed.  Wlien  a  stiff  soil  dries  and  becomes 
hard  the  air  is  excluded  and  the  roots  are  likely  to  suffer  not  only  from  lack 
of  moisture  but  from  lack  of  air. 

Clay  soil  containing  organic  matter  is  more  friable  than  similar  soil  without 
organic  matter.  Where  soil  from  which  the  organic  matter  had  been  extracted 
was  allowed  to  freeze  and  thaw  it  remained  compact  and  did  not  crumble.  When 
the  organic  matter  previously  dissolved  out  of  this  soil  was  returned  to  it  the  soil 
crumbled  after  freezing,  the  same  as  the  original  soil. 

Some  crop  plants,  as  alsike  clover  and  rice,  thrive  in  a  water-soaked  soil,  and 
wheat  has  been  successfully  matured  in  sealed  pots  from  which  air  was  excluded. 
In  general,  however,  experience  has  amply  shown  that  most  crop  plants  do  better 
when  the  soil  in  which  they  grow  is  in  good  tilth.  This  condition  of  good  tilth  is 
faciUtated  by  organic  matter. 

Not  only  do  the  higher  plants  grow  better  in  a  soil  rich  in  organic  matter,  but 
the  activities  of  the  soil  bacteria  are  largely  dependent  on  the  supply  of  decaying 
vegetable  matter.  These  bacteria  need  food  and  air.  Their  food  is  the  dead 
vegetable  matter,  which  they  break  down  and  thus  make  available  to  the  higher 
plants.  Most  beneficial  bacteria  use  air,  and  this  they  find  more  abundantly  in  a 
soil  supplied  with  organic  matter  than  in  stiff  clays  poor  in  organic  matter.  In 
sandy  soils  there  is  air  enough,  but  the  addition  of  humus  helps  to  hold  moisture 
and  so  benefits  the  bacteria  as  well  as  the  higher  plants. 

It  has  been  shown  that  while  100  pounds  of  sand  can  hold  only  25  pounds  of 
water  and  100  pounds  of  clay  50  pounds,  the  same  weight  of  humus  or  decaying 
organic  matter  will  hold  190  pounds.  A  good  physical  condition  of  the  soil, 
therefore,  largely  depends  on  the  organic  matter  in  the  soil. 

Nitrogen  is  conserved  by  growing  green-manure  crops  on  land,  which 
might  otherwise  be  kept  bare  in  late  summer  after  an  early  crop  has  been 
removed.  Soluble  nitrates  in  the  soil  are  taken  up  by  the  growing 
manure  crop  and  this  prevents  loss  by  drainage  or  by  decomposition  and 
consequent  escape  of  free  nitrogen  into  the  air.  The  soluble  nitrates  are 
transferred  from  the  soil  into  the  crop  and  in  this  form  there  is  little 
danger  of  loss  under  ordinary  conditions. 

Leguminous  crops  grown  as  green  manure  add  to  the  amount  of 
nitrogen  in  the  soil  owing  to  their  ability  to  use  atmospheric  nitrogen. 
Green  legumes  add  50  to  100  pounds  and  more  of  nitrogen  per  acre  not 
including  the  roots  and  stubble.  The  quantity  of  nitrogen,  of  course,  is 
dependent  upon  the  kind  and  the  amount  of  crop  grown. 

Green  plants  turned  under  must  decay  before  they  can  be  used  by  the 
succeeding  crop.  In  this  decomposition  of  the  plant  tissues  acids  are 
produced,  and  these,  acting  on  the  soil  render  parts  of  the  mineral 
compounds  soluble.  In  addition  to  this  in  the  growth  of  the  green- 
manure  crop  mineral  substances  are  used  and  these  are  made  available  to 
the  succeeding  crop  on  decomposition  of  the  material  turned  under. 
Phosphorus   and    potassium    derived   from    decayed    plants   are    more 


34  VEGETABLE  CHOPS 

readily  available  for  the  next  crop  than  are  these  substances  when  derived 
from  the  mineral  soil  particles. 

The  roots  of  plants,  reaching  the  sub-soil,  collect  raw  materials  from 
all  parts  of  the  soil  and,  on  decomposition  of  the  crop  in  the  upper  layer  of 
soil,  this  material  is  concentrated  in  a  more  limited  horizon  than 
previously. 

Selection  of  a  Green-manure  Crop. — In  selecting  crops  for  green 
manuring  purposes  the  following  factors  should  be  considered:  (1) 
Adaptation  of  the  crop  to  the  climate,  (2)  adaptation  to  the  soil,  (3) 
amount  of  vegetable  matter  produced,  (4)  rapidity  of  growth,  (5)  char- 
acter of  root  growth,  (6)  character  of  crop,  legume  or  non-legume,  (7) 
ease  of  incorporating  the  crop  with  the  soil,  (8)  length  of  time  available 
for  the  growth  of  the  crop. 

Since  organic  matter  is  of  greatest  importance  under  most  condi- 
tions, the  crop  selected  should  usually  be  the  one  which  will  produce 
the  largest  amount  of  material  in  the  time  available.  For  this  reason 
rye  is  the  crop  most  commonly  grown  in  regions  where  the  summer  grow- 
ing season  is  short,  since  this  crop  can  be  sown  late  in  the  season  and  attain 
considerable  growth  before  winter. 

Legumes. — Where  all  of  the  conditions  of  weather,  soil  and  cropping 
systems  are  favorable  the  vegetable  grower  would  undoubtedl}^  select 
one  of  the  legumes.  Such  crops  furnish  nitrogen  in  addition  to  the  humus 
and  because  of  this  are  more  valuable  than  non-legumes.  Among  the 
leguminous  crops  grown  are  red  clover,  mammoth  clover,  crimson  clover, 
bur  clover,  sweet  clover,  cowpeas,  soybeans,  vetch  and  field  peas. 

Of  the  clovers,  crimson  clover  is  the  one  most  commonly  used  as  a 
soil-improving  crop  on  vegetable  soils  since  it  thrives  well  on  sandy  and 
sandy  loam  soils.  This  crop  does  not  stand  severe  winters,  therefore,  is 
not  used  much  in  the  North.  It  is,  however,  a  good  catch  crop  since  it 
can  be  grown  satisfactorily  between  rows  of  vegetables.  Seed  of  crimson 
clover  is  very  often  sown  at  the  last  cultivation  of  late  vegetables.  In 
New  Jersey,  Delaware,  Maryland  and  Virginia,  and  in  the  other  states 
having  similar  climate,  crimson  clover  does  well  if  sown  in  August.  In 
cooler  regions  the  seed  should  be  sown  in  July.  Fifteen  to  20  pounds 
of  seed  should  be  sown  to  the  acre. 

Red  clover  and  mammoth  clover  are  sometimes  used  as  soil-improving 
crops.  These  clovers  are  used  mainly  in  the  North  and  the  seed  should  be 
sown  in  July  or  August  after  the  removal  of  early  vegetables.  Not  less 
than  10  to  12  pounds  of  seed  of  red  clover  should  be  sown  to  the  acre. 
The  crop  of  red  or  mammoth  clover  may  be  plowed  under  in  the  fall  or 
late  in  the  spring. 

Bur  clover  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  soil-improving  crops  for  sections 
of  the  South,  but  since  it  is  mainly  a  winter  crop  it  is  little  used  by  vege- 
table growers.     In  most  of  the  commercial  vegetable  growing  regions  of 


GREEN  MANURES  35 

the  South,  vegetables  are  grown  during  the  winter.  Green-manure 
crops  are  produced  during  the  summer  when  vegetables  from  the  South 
are  not  in  great  demand. 

The  cowpea  is  the  most  important  green-manure  crop  in  the  South, 
because  it  produces  a  large  amount  of  material  in  a  short  time  and  thrives 
in  nearly  all  sections.  It  requires  a  large  amount  of  heat  for  good  growth 
and  does  not  succeed  well  in  the  cooler  portions  of  the  North.  This  crop 
is  grown  mostly  after  early  vegetables  have  been  removed  and  before 
starting  fall  and  winter  crops. 

The  varieties  of  cowpeas  most  commonly  grown  for  manuring  purposes 
are  Whippoorwill,  New  Era,  Iron  and  Wonderful.  Where  root  knot, 
caused  by  nematodes,  is  serious  the  Iron  is  probably  the  best  variety  to 
use  since  this  is  quite  resistant  to  this  disease.  The  usual  amount  of 
cowpea  seed  sown  is  about  2  bushels  per  acre  planted  with  a  drill  or 
sown  broadcast  and  covered  with  a  harrow. 

The  soybean  thrives  better  on  a  heavier  soil  and  in  a  cooler  climate 
than  the  cowpea,  therefore,  it  can  be  used  in  the  North.  It  is  grown 
some  in  the  South  for  manuring  purposes,  but  on  poor  soils  it  does  not 
produce  as  much  crop  as  the  cowpea  and  the  stems  are  coarser.  The 
seed  may  be  planted  in  rows  and  cultivated,  or  sown  broadcast  in  the 
same  manner  as  cowpeas. 

Hairy  vetch  is  grown  to  some  extent  as  a  soil-improving  crop,  or  as  a 
cover  crop  on  sandy  soils  in  the  North.  It  may  be  sown  alone,  but  under 
most  conditions,  it  is  best  to  sow  with  rye.  To  secure  best  results,  seed 
should  be  sown  in  July  or  early  in  August  at  the  rate  of  60  to  80  pounds 
per  acre  when  grown  alone.  When  sown  with  rye  20  to  30  pounds  of 
vetch  seed  are  planted  to  the  acre. 

Non-legumes. — Of  the  non-legumes  rye  is  by  far  the  most  popular 
green-manure  crop,  because  it  can  be  grown  on  nearly  all  kinds  of  soils 
and  is  not  adversely  affected  by  cold  weather.  Rye  may  be  planted  later 
than  other  green-manure  crops,  therefore  is  a  valuable  crop  to  use  after 
the  removal  of  late  vegetables  where,  as  in  the  North,  no  legume  except 
vetch  is  of  much  value.  Under  most  conditions  in  the  North  rye  is  the 
most  valuable  of  all  of  the  green  crops  grown  for  supplying  humus  to  the 
soil.  By  planning  the  cropping  system  carefully  practically  all  gardeners 
can  grow  rye  as  a  winter  cover  crop.  When  vegetable  crops  are  harvested 
in  late  summer,  too  late  for  producing  another  crop,  rye  should  be  sown 
immediately  in  order  to  secure  a  good  growth  before  winter.  This  may 
then  be  turned  under  for  early  vegetables.  On  the  other  hand,  if  vege- 
tables are  harvested  late  in  the  fall  rye  may  still  be  sown,  but  will  not 
make  much  growth  in  the  North  until  spring.  In  this  case  it  is  desirable  to 
allow  the  rye  to  grow  until  time  to  plant  a  crop  of  late  vegetables,  such 
as  late  cabbage.  It  is  possible,  by  the  methods  mentioned,  for  vege- 
table growers  to  grow  rye  on  nearly  all  their  land  every  year  and  still 


36  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

produce  a  money  crop  on  the  same  land.  To  secure  a  good  crop  of  rye  at 
least  2  bushels  of  seed  should  be  used  to  the  acre  and  some  gardeners 
use  3  bushels.  It  is  a  good  practice  to  sow  some  vetch  seed  with  the  rj^e. 
When  to  Plow  under  Green-manure  Crops. — The  answer  to  this 
depends  upon  the  kind  of  soil,  the  season  of  the  year,  the  age  of  the  crop, 
the  weather  conditions  and  the  crop  to  follow.  For  early  vegetables 
in  the  North  the  cover  crop  must  be  plowed  under  early  in  the  spring 
if  plowing  has  not  been  done  in  the  fall.  If  a  late  crop  is  to  follow  the 
soil-improving  crop,  full  growth  should  be  allowed  in  order  to  have  a 
large  amount  of  material  to  turn  under,  but  the  older  the  crop  the  more 
time  will  be  required  for  its  decomposition.  The  crop  should  be  turned 
under  before  the  soil  gets  dry  or  the  green  material  will  decay  very  slowly 
and  check  capillary  movement  of  soil  moisture.  On  the  other  hand  when 
a  green  crop  is  turned  under  in  late  summer  or  fall  in  the  North,  the 
cool  wet  weather  which  follows  checks  decomposition  and  production 
of  acidity  may  result.  The  best  condition  for  rapid  decomposition  of 
green  manures,  without  loss  of  nitrogen,  is  abundance  of  moisture  and 
heat. 


CHAPTER  V 
COMMERCIAL  FERTILIZERS 

The  term  commercial  fertilizer  is  used  to  distinguish  between  animal 
manures  and  other  materials  applied  to  the  soil  to  furnish  raw  materials 
to  the  plant.  When  the  term  came  into  use  manure  was  not  considered  a 
commercial  product  while  the  other  materials  used  as  fertilizers  were 
commercial  products  hence  the  use  of  the  word  "commercial."  A  com- 
mercial fertilizer  may  consist  of  a  single  chemical  compound,  as  nitrate 
of  soda  or  muriate  of  potash,  or  it  may  consist  of  a  mixture  of  several 
chemical  compounds;  or  of  organic  materials  such  as  bone  meal,  tankage, 
cottonseed  meal,  etc.  Most  mixed  fertiHzers  contain  compounds  of 
nitrogen,  phosphorus  and  potash  and  each  of  these  elements  may  be 
present  in  more  than  one  form.  Nitrogen  is  often  present  in  an  organic 
form,  such  as  dried  blood,  tankage  or  cottonseed  meal  and  in  an  inorganic 
compound,  such  as  nitrate  of  soda  or  sulphate  of  ammonia.  All  materials 
applied  to  the  soil  to  furnish  plants  with  raw  material,  except  the  animal 
manures,  are  called  "fertilizers"  or  "commercial  fertilizers."  Lime  is 
a  fertilizer  although  applied  mainly  to  correct  acidity  of  the  soil. 

Importance  of  Commercial  Fertilizers. — In  vegetable  growing,  com- 
mercial fertilizers  are  very  important  and  are  increasing  in  use  every 
year.  This  increase  is  due  to  the  shortage  of  animal  manures  and  to  the 
increasing  knowledge  of  the  importance  of  commercial  fertilizers.  It 
is  possible  to  grow  large  crops  without  the  use  of  commercial  fertihzers, 
provided  manure  is  used  in  large  amount,  but  it  is  doubtful  if  this  is  now 
economical.  Manure  is  not  a  balanced  fertilizer,  being  especially  deficient 
in  phosphorus.  Manure  applied  in  large  enough  quantities  to  furnish 
sufficient  phosphorus  for  large  crops  would  result  in  a  waste  of  nitrogen. 
Even  with  manure  therefore,  it  is  usually  economical  to  use  commercial 
fertilizer  in  some  form. 

The  greatest  demand  for  commercial  fertilizer  comes  as  a  result 
of  inadequate  supply  of  manure.  Even  market  gardeners  near  the  cities 
are  finding  it  difficult  to  secure  manure,  and  are  supplementing  it  with 
commercial  fertihzers.  The  truck  growers  located  at  a  long  distance 
from  a  source  of  supply  of  manure  depend  upon  fertilizers  almost  entirely 
to  supply  nitrogen,  phosphorus  and  potash,  and  on  green-manure  crops 
to  supply  humus. 

Commercial  fertilizers  contain  raw  material  in  forms  more  avail- 
able than  in  manure;  therefore  quick  acting  fertilizers  are  of  value  even 

37 


38  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

where  manure  is  used  in  huge  (luantities.  This  is  especially  true  because 
of  the  need  of  a  readily  available  source  of  nitrogen  early  in  the  spring 
before  the  ground  warms  up.  It  is  possible  to  grow  crops  to  maturity 
in  less  time  by  the  use  of  commercial  fertilizers  than  where  manure  alone 
is  used.  This  rapid  growth  is  verj'  important  in  vegetable  growing,  especi- 
ally for  early  crops  and  for  those  in  which  quick  growth  is  essential  to  high 
quality.  Rapid  growth  is  especially  desirable  in  celery,  lettuce  and 
radishes. 

Advantages  of  Commercial  Fertilizer. — Among  the  advantages  of 
commercial  fertilizers  are:  (1)  They  usually  contain  the  elements  in 
a  readily  available  form,  (2)  they  require  less  labor  in  hauling  and  apply- 
ing than  manure,  (3)  they  can  be  secured  in  any  quantity  and  with  the 
elements  in  the  proportion  desired,  (4)  they  are  uniform  in  kinds  and 
proportions  of  nitrogen,  phosphorus  and  potash  and  are  sold  under 
guaranteed  analyses  so  that  the  buyer  knows  what  elements  and  the 
amounts  of  each  he  is  getting,  (5)  they  furnish  good  materials  in  a 
complete  mechanical  mixture,  (6)  they  supply  sulphur  and  calcium  in 
addition  to  the  three  elements  usually  considered.  With  some  crops 
and  on  some  soils  calcium  and  sulphur  are  apparentlj^  important. 

Value  and  Use  of  Nitrogen. — Of  the  three  elements  commonly 
supplied  by  commercial  fertilizers,  nitrogen  has  the  quickest  and  most 
pronounced  effect.  Nitrogen  is  a  constituent  of  all  proteins  and  these 
are  probably  the  active  components  of  protoplasm.  It  tends  to  encour- 
age the  development  of  the  vegetative,  above-ground  portion  of 
the  plant  and  to  impart  a  deep  green  color  to  the  leaves.  It  increases 
plumpness  in  seeds  and  it  governs  to  some  extent  the  utilization  of  potash 
and  phosphoric  acid.  Nitrogen  tends  to  produce  succulence,  a  quality  of 
great  importance  in  many  vegetables.  Of  the  three  elements  commonly 
used,  nitrogen  is  more  likely  to  be  the  limiting  factor  than  either  potash  or 
phosphorus  because  it  is  lost  from  cultivated  soils  more  quickly  and  also 
because  it  is  more  expensive,  and  therefore,  less  likely  to  be  supplied  in 
sufficient  amounts. 

Nitrogen  in  commercial  fertilizers  may  be  in  the  form  of  soluble 
inorganic  salts,  or  combined  as  organic  material.  On  the  form  to  a  con- 
siderable extent  depends  the  value  of  the  nitrogen.  The  soluble  inorganic 
foi'ms  are  readil}'  available  to  the  plant,  but  the  organic  forms  must  pass 
through  various  processes  leading  to  nitrification  before  the  nitrogen  is 
available  to  the  plant.  The  most  important  inorganic  nitrogenous 
fertilizers  are  nitrate  of  soda  and  sulphate  of  ammonia,  the  former  being 
used  to  a  much  greater  extent  than  the  latter.  The  important  organic 
nitrogenous  fertilizers  are  dried  blood,  tankage,  cottonseed  meal,  linseed 
meal,  dried  fish  and  garbage  tankage.  Since  some  of  the  organic  nitro- 
genous fertilizers  are  also  used  to  a  very  large  extent  as  feed,  the  nitrogen 
from  these  materials  usually  costs  more  than  from  the  inorganic  salts 


COMMERCIAL  FERTILIZERS  39 

For  this  reason  and  also  because  of  the  availabihty  of  the  nitrogen  in  the 
inorganic  salts,  the  latter  are  being  more  generally  used  by  the  vegetable 
grower. 

It  is  important  for  the  vegetable  grower  to  know  the  source  of  the 
nitrogen  in  mixed  fertilizer.  For  early  spring  crops  nitrate  of  soda  is 
more  desirable  than  tankage  or  other  organic  material,  because  the  nitro- 
gen in  the  latter  would  not  be  available  at  the  time  the  plants  need  it 
most.  Many  vegetable  growers  prefer  to  have  the  nitrogen  in  mixed 
fertilizers  supplied  in  both  inorganic  and  organic  forms,  the  former  for 
use  by  plants  early  in  the  season  and  the  latter  for  use  later.  This  pref- 
erence is  based  on  the  belief  that  nitrogen  applied  as  nitrate  of  soda,  will 
be  lost  by  leaching  if  the  plants  do  not  take  it  up  almost  immediately. 
Experimental  results,  however,  do  not  bear  out  this  belief  except  in  very 
porous  soils. 

Value  and  Use  of  Phosphorus. — Many  soils  are  poor  in  readily  avail- 
able phosphorus  although  there  may  be  considerable  quantities  of  phos- 
phorus compounds  in  the  soil.  For  growing  vegetables  on  practically  all 
soils  it  usually  is  desirable  to  apply  fertilizers  containing  phosphorus. 
Most  mixed  fertilizers  contain  a  considerable  percentage  of  phosphoric 
acid  because  it  is  usually  effective  and  also  because  this  is  usually  the 
cheapest  of  the  three  ingredients  used  in  complete  fertilizers.  Phos- 
phorus is  supposed  to  hasten  the  maturity  of  the  plant,  increase  root 
development,  especially  the  fibrous  roots,  improve  the  quality  of  the  crop 
and  increase  resistance  to  disease.  Phosphorus  is  thought  by  many  to 
counteract  the  effects  of  over  stimulation  due  to  excess  of  nitrogen,  but 
there  is  no  reliable  experimental  evidence  to  prove  this  contention. 

The  chief  sources  of  phosphorus  used  as  fertilizers  are  phosphate  rock 
and  animal  bones.  The  former  is  much  the  more  important  at  the  pres- 
ent time.  The  rock  contains  phosphorus  in  the  form  of  tri-calcium 
phosphate,  which  is  treated  with  sulphuric  acid  to  form  acid  phosphate, 
the  material  commonly  used  by  vegetable  growers.  The  phosphorus  in 
acid  phosphate  is  available  to  the  plant.  Raw  ground  phosphate  rock  is 
used  in  some  sections  of  the  country  for  general  farm  crops,  but  is  prac- 
tically never  used  for  vegetables,  except  when  applied  to  the  compost  pile. 
Most  of  the  bone  fertilizer  now  on  the  market  is  first  boiled  or  steamed  to 
free  it  from  fat  and  nitrogenous  material.  Steamed  bone  is  more  valuable 
than  raw  bone  as  a  fertilizer,  because  the  fat  in  the  latter  retards  decom- 
position. The  phosphorus  in  both  raw  and  steamed  bone  is  in  the  form 
of  tricalcium  phosphate,  which  is  not  readily  available  to  the  plant,  and 
therefore,  should  not  be  used  as  a  source  of  phosphorus  for  immediate 
results.  The  bone  may,  however,  be  treated  with  sulphuric  acid  and 
the  phosphorus  changed  to  the  available  form. 

Value  and  Use  of  Potash. — Potash  is  essential  to  starch  formation 
and  in  transference  of  starch  from  one  part  of  the  plant  to  another.     It 


40  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

is  especially  important  in  producing  root  crops,  but  is  essential  in  grow- 
ing all  crops  since  it  is  a  necessary  component  of  chlorophyll.  Potash 
may  be  present  in  large  quantities  in  the  soil  without  exerting  a  harmful 
effect  on  the  crop.  It  should  be  generally  used  in  mixed  fertilizers  for 
vegetable  growing.  Applications  of  potash  are  particularly  important 
for  sandy  soils  and  muck  soils,  the  latter  being  practically  always  poor 
in  this  element. 

The  main  potash  compounds  used  as  fertilizers  are  muriate  and  sul- 
phate of  potash  but  kainit  and  wood  ashes  are  also  used.  Muriate  is  the 
most  common  form  used  by  vegetable  growers,  but  sulphate  is  preferred 
by  some  and  kainit  is  favored  by  some  asparagus  growers.  Some  of  the 
preference  for  sulphate  over  muriate  is  not  borne  out  by  experimental  data. 
For  most  crops  the  muriate  is  at  least  equal  to  the  sulphate  and  the  former 
is  the  cheaper. 

Importance  of  Other  Mineral  Elements. — While  the  value  of  com- 
mercial fertilizers  (including  lime)  is  based  on  the  nitrogen  phosphorus, 
potassium  and  calcium  they  contain  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that 
other  mineral  elements  are  essential  to  plant  growth.  The  importance 
of  calcium  is  discussed  in  connection  with  lime,  page  47.  It  is  known 
that  sulphur,  magnesium  and  iron  are  essential  to  all  green  plants. 
Sodium,  chlorine  and  silicon  are  always  present  but  it  is  not  known  that 
they  are  essential.     They  may  be  in  some  cases. 

Sulphur  is  necessary  because  it  is  essential  to  the  formation  of  proteins. 
It  cannot  be  replaced  by  any  other  element.  This  fact  has  been  known 
for  a  long  time,  but  until  recent  times  it  has  been  assumed  that  all  soils 
contained  sufficient  sulphur  to  meet  the  needs  of  crop  plants.  However, 
the  plant  uses  much  more  sulphur  than  was  formerly  supposed,  since 
the  methods  of  analysis  formerly  used  took  into  consideration  only 
the  sulphur  that  appeared  in  the  ash  as  sulphates.  Improved  methods  of 
analysis  show  that  the  total  sulphur  present  in  many  plants  nearly  equals 
the  quantity  of  phosphorus  in  the  same  tissue.  Recent  experiments  have 
shown  that  part  of  the  beneficial  effects  of  many  fertilizers  is  due  to  the 
presence  of  sulphur  in  the  form  of  sulphates.  While  it  is  true  that 
under  most  conditions  sufficient  sulphur  is  present  in  the  soil,  and  supplied 
in  fertilizers  to  meet  the  needs  of  most  crops,  there  is  some  evidence  that 
it  may  be  desirable  to  apply  this  element. 

Recent  experiments  with  sulphur  to  control  the  common  potato 
scab  have  given  promising  results.  The  beneficial  results  in  this  case 
are  supposed  to  be  due  to  increasing  acidity  of  the  soil. 

Magnesium  is  a  constituent  of  the  chlorophyll  molecule,  serving  as 
a  means  of  linkage  between  its  component  organic  groups.  When  mag- 
nesium is  absent  from  the  culture  medium  the  plants  are  etiolated. 
Magnesium  seems  to  be  necessary  to  fat  formation,  apparently  having 
a  similar  relation  to  this  that  potash  has  to  carbohydrate-formation. 


COMMERCIAL  FERTILIZERS  41 

It  has  been  suggested  that  the  large  amount  of  magnesium  in  oily  seeds 
may  be  related  to  phosphorus-translocation  rather  than  to  fat-formation. 

Excess  of  soluble  magnesium  salts  in  the  soil  produces  toxic  effects  on 
plants.  Calcium  is  very  efficient  in  counteracting  the  harmful  effects  of 
magnesium  salts  and  this  fact  has  been  responsible  for  a  large  amount  of 
study  on  the  calcium-magnesium  ratio  in  plants. 

Iron  is  apparently  essential  to  chlorophyll-formation,  although  it  is 
not  a  constituent  of  the  chlorophyll  molecule.  In  the  absence  of  iron 
from  the  culture  medium  a  plant  does  not  produce  chlorophyll.  It  is 
not  definitely  known  just  how  iron  is  related  to  chlorophyll-formation. 
Some  authorities  have  suggested  that  it  acts  as  a  catalytic  agent. 

Iron  is  used  in  very  small  quantities  by  plants  and  all  agricultural 
soils  contain  enough  for  crop  production.  Soluble  ferric  compounds 
are  the  source  of  supply  of  iron  to  plants;  ferrous  compounds  being 
highly  toxic. 

Sodium  is  not  considered  as  essential  to  growth  although  it  is  present 
in  small  quantities  in  the  ash  from  practically  all  plants.  It  is  known 
that  sodium  can  liberate  some  of  the  other  elements,  and  may  therefore 
be  of  some  indirect  value  when  applied  to  the  soil.  Experiments  have 
shown  that  in  cases  of  insufficient  potassium,  sodium  can  perform  a  part 
of  the  role  of  the  former  element. 

Chlorine  is  found  in  small  amounts  in  plants,  but  it  does  not  appear 
to  be  essential  to  growth,  except  possibly  in  the  case  of  certain  plants  such 
as  asparagus,  turnips  and  a  few  others.  Some  authorities  believe  that 
common  salt  is  of  some  value  in  growing  asparagus  due  to  chlorine  rather 
than  to  the  sodium.  This  belief  is  based  on  observation  and  some 
experimental  evidence  that  muriate  of  potash  gives  better  results  than 
sulphate  of  potash,  and  that  common  salt  does  not  increase  the  yield 
when  applied  with  the  former,  but  does  increase  it  when  applied  with  the 
latter.  The  evidence  on  this  subject  is  not  sufficient  to  justify  positive 
statements. 

Rate  of  Application  of  Fertilizers. — The  rate  of  application  of  fertili- 
zer depends  upon  the  character  of  the  soil,  the  previous  treatment,  the 
crop  to  be  grown,  the  rotation  and  cropping  system  followed,  etc.  In 
general  it  is  sound  business  policy  to  apply  the  various  elements  in  suffi- 
cient quantities  to  secure  maximum  returns,  but  under  some  conditions 
increased  yields  from  heavy  applications  of  fertilizer  over  moderate 
amounts  do  not  pay  for  the  extra  amount  appHed.  The  proportion  of 
the  various  elements  should  be  based  on  the  character  of  the  soil  and  the 
needs  of  the  crop.  Applications  vary  from  a  few  hundred  pounds  to 
1  ton  or  more  per  acre  of  high  grade  fertilizer.  Some  growers  use  13^^ 
tons  or  even  more  per  acre,  but  it  is  doubtful  if  more  than  1  ton  is  often 
justified.  Certainly  large  applications  are  never  justified  for  most 
vegetables  unless  the  soil  is  in  good  physical  condition.     There  is  some 


42  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

evidence  of  heavy  applications  of  commercial  fertilizers  being  harmful, 
especially  where  there  is  a  lack  of  humus  in  the  soil. 

Time  and  Method  of  Application. — In  general  fertilizers  for  vegetables 
should  be  applied  after  the  land  is  plowed  but  before  harrowing.  The 
harrowing  mixes  the  fertilizer  with  the  surface  soil.  Applications  a 
few  days  prior  to  planting  are  considered  best,  under  most  conditions. 
For  most  crops,  where  medium  amounts  are  used,  there  is  no  advantage 
in  making  more  than  one  application  since  it  is  more  expensive  to  apply 
the  same  amount  in  two  applications.  There  is  not  much  danger  of 
loss  due  to  leaching  even  if  all  the  fertilizer  is  applied  before  the  crop 
is  planted.  Experiments  have  shown  as  good  results  from  a  single 
application  as  from  two  or  more  if  the  same  total  amount  of  material  is 
used. 

Broadcast  application  is  preferable  to  applying  fertilizer  in  the  drill 
or  in  hills  for  most  crops,  especially  where  sufficient  quantity  is  used. 
For  medium  to  large  applications  (above  1,000  pounds  to  the  acre), 
application  in  the  hill  or  drill  is  not  safe  because  of  danger  of  injury  to 
the  roots  coming  in  contact  with  the  fertilizer.  Then,  too,  the  roots  do 
not  confine  themselves  to  the  vicinity  of  the  drill  or  hill,  therefore  it  is 
not  possible  for  all  of  the  roots  to  take  up  the  material  when  the  fertilizer 
is  confined  to  a  limited  area  around  the  plants.  Where  small  amounts  of 
fertilizer  are  applied  to  crops  planted  in  wide-spaced  rows  it  may  be  good 
practice  to  confine  the  fertilizer  to  the  drill  or  to  a  narrow  strip  near 
the  row.  With  melons  and  cucumbers  fertihzers  are  often  applied  in 
the  drill  for  the  reasons  mentioned,  but  it  is  doubtful  if  this  is  the  best 
practice  where  as  much  as  1,000  pounds  per  acre  are  used.  The  applica- 
tion of  large  quantities  of  nitrate  of  soda  at  one  time  may  result  in  loss 
due  to  leaching,  especially  on  sandy  soils.  It  is  probably  good  practice 
under  these  conditions  to  apply  nitrate  of  soda  in  more  than  one  applica- 
tion, the  first  before  the  crop  is  planted  and  later  applications  as  side 
dressings  or  broadcast.  Side  dressing  with  nitrate  of  soda  is  quite  com- 
mon on  some  crops,  especially  when  the  plants  have  been  checked  in 
growth  due  to  unfavorable  weather  conditions  or  other  causes. 

Various  drills  and  fertilizer  distributors  have  been  placed  on  the 
market  and  they  all  are  of  value.  There  are  drills  to  apply  the  fertilizer 
in  the  row,  others  to  distribute  it  in  a  strip  along  the  row  and  still  others 
to  scatter  the  fertilizer  in  a  strip  8  to  10  feet  wide.  The  last  men- 
tioned type  is  used  for  applying  fertilizer  to  the  whole  area  to  he  planted, 
the  application  being  made  before  the  land  is  harrowed.  The  grain  drill 
is  often  used  since  it  usually  has  a  fertilizer  attachment.  Lime  spreaders 
can  also  be  used  for  applying  fertilizers.  All  of  these  drills  and  distrib- 
utors can  be  set  to  apply  fertilizer  at  almost  any  rate  desired. 

Buying  Fertilizers. — In  buying  mixed  fertilizers  the  vegetable  grower 
should  purchase  high-grade  goods  and  insist  on  knowing  the  sources 


COMMERCIAL  FERTILIZERS  43 

of  the  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and  potash.  In  general,  in  mixed  fertil- 
izers, part  of  the  nitrogen,  at  least,  should  be  in  a  readily  available  form 
such  as  nitrate  of  soda  or  sulphate  of  ammonia.  If  some  organic  source 
of  nitrogen  is  desired  dried  blood,  fine  ground  tankage,  fine  ground  fish 
or  cottonseed  meal  should  be  used  in  preference  to  such  substances  as 
garbage  tankage,  hoof-and-horn  meal,  ground  leather,  etc.  Acid  phos- 
phate is  a  desirable  carrier  of  phosphoric  acid  and  muriate  of  potash  is  a 
favorite  and  cheap  source  of  potash.  Fertilizers  should  be  bought  on  the 
basis  of  the  percentage  of  the  three  important  elements  and  the  purchaser 
should  insist  on  a  guaranteed  analysis.  The  lower  the  grade  of  the 
fertihzer  the  higher  the  cost  of  the  elements  nitrogen,  phosphorus  and 
potash  because  it  costs  as  much  to  mix,  bag,  transport  and  handle  a  low- 
grade  mixture  as  it  does  a  high-grade  one. 

Home  Mixing  of  Fertilizers. — Home  mixing  is  increasing  in  popularity 
among  vegetable  growers.  The  advantages  of  home  mixing  are:  (1) 
Lower  cost  of  material ,  (2)  lower  transportation  charges  because  of  secur- 
ing high-grade  goods  and  the  ehmination  of  filler,  (3)  better  knowledge  of 
the  kind  and  amount  of  each  material  used,  (4)  better  opportunity  to 
mix  the  fertihzer  to  suit  the  needs  of  the  crops  and  soil,  (5)  educational 
value,  for  no  farmer  can  mix  his  own  fertihzers  without  becoming  familiar 
with  the  carriers,  their  availability  and  their  effects.  These  advantages 
do  not  necessarily  mean  that  home  mixing  should  always  be  practiced. 
It  does  not  pay  to  mix  at  home  where  only  a  small  amount  of  fertilizer 
is  to  be  used  unless  it  is  possible  to  cooperate  with  other  farmers  in  buying 
materials  on  a  large  scale. 

Certain  fertihzers  should  not  be  mixed  due  to  the  fact  that  a  number 
of  materials  carry  lime  in  the  oxide,  the  hydrate,  or  the  carbonate  form. 
The  lime  maj^  react  on  the  fertilizer  with  which  it  is  in  contact  and  set 
free  ammonia,  cause  reversion  of  acid  phosphate,  or  produce  bad  physical 
condition.  In  general,  nitrogenous  fertilizers  and  soluble  phosphates 
should  not  be  mixed  with  calcium  oxide,  calcium  hydroxide,  wood  ashes 
or  basic  slag.  Nitrate  of  soda,  muriate  of  potash  and  kainit  should  not 
be  mixed  with  calcium  oxide  and  calcium  hydroxide  unless  the  mixture 
is  to  be  applied  immediately. 

The  calculation  of  the  amounts  of  the  carrier  and  filler  necessary 
to  make  up  a  ton  of  fertilizer  having  a  certain  formula  is  a  matter  of 
simple  arithmetic.  Suppose  a  fertilizer  containing  4  per  cent  ammonia, 
8  per  cent  phosphoric  acid  and  8  per  cent  potash  is  desired.  To  make 
the  calculation  simple  we  will  use  nitrate  of  soda  containing  18  per  cent 
ammonia,  acid  phosphate  with  16  per  cent  phosphoric  acid  and  muriate 
of  potash  containing  50  per  cent  of  potash.  The  first  step  is  to  find 
out  the  amount  of  ammonia,  phosphoric  acid  and  potash  in  a  ton  of 
4-8-8  fertilizer.  This  is  done  by  multiplying  the  percentage  by  20 
as  follows: 


44 


VEGETABLE  CROPS 


Per  cent  =  lb. 
per  hundred 


Pounds  per  ton 


Ammonia 

Phosplioric  acid 
Potash 


4  X  20 
8  X  20 
8  X  20 


80 
160 
IGO 


The  next  step  is  to  find  how  many  pounds  of  nitrate  of  soda,  acid 
phosphate  and  muriate  of  potash  are  required  to  furnish  the  above 
amounts.  Since  nitrate  of  soda  contains  18  pounds  of  ammonia  per 
hundred  it  will  require  as  many  times  100  pounds  as  18  is  contained  in 

80  or =  444,  or  zrr^  =  444  pounds  of  nitrate  of  soda.     For 

18  0.18 


phosphoric  acid  the  calculation  would  be 


160  X  100 


16  per  cent  acid  phosphate  and  for  potash  it  would  be 


=  1,000  pounds  of 
160  X  100 


50 


320 


pounds  of  muriate  of  potash.  Adding  these  three  amounts  together 
we  would  have  1,764  pounds  instead  of  a  ton,  but  to  make  a  ton  236 
pounds  of  filler  would  be  added.  It  is  not  necessary  to  use  this  filler  as 
the  1,764  pounds  of  mixture  would  contain  exactly  the  amounts  of  ammo- 
nia, phosphoric  acid  and  potash  in  one  ton  of  a  4-8-8  mixed  fertilizer. 
However,  where  the  mixture  is  not  to  be  used  immediately  some  filler 
which  will  prevent  caking  should  be  used.  Most  gardeners  prefer  part 
of  the  ammonia  in  mixed  fertiUzers  to  be  derived  from  organic  materials 
such  as  dried  blood,  tankage  or  cottonseed  meal  and  where  one  of  these 
is  used  there  is  no  need  of  a  filler  or  drier. 

In  mixing  of  fertilizers  it  is  important  to  have  the  ingredients 
thoroughly  mixed.  This  can  be  done  by  hand  as  follows:  Pour  out 
one  of  the  ingredients  on  the  floor  and  level  off  the  pile,  then  put  on  the 
second  and  rake  level  and  continue  in  this  way  until  all  the  ingredients  are 
on  the  pile.  Then  begin  at  one  end  and  shovel  the  material  on  a  sand 
screen  set  at  an  angle  of  45  degrees  to  the  floor.  The  fine  material  will 
fall  through  and  the  lumps  will  roll  to  the  bottom  of  the  screen  where 
they  can  be  crushed  with  shovels  or  a  lump  crusher.  After  screening 
the  pile  should  be  turned  over  twice  to  insure  thorough  mixing. 

Where  mixing  is  to  be  done  on  a  large  scale  it  is  advisable  to  have 
a  mechanical  mixer.  Power-driven  mixing  machines  are  being  used 
by  organizations  which  buy  fertilizers  cooperatively  for  farmers. 

The  Use  of  Lime. — It  is  known  that  many  vegetables  require  a  neutral 
or  slightly  alkahne  soil  for  best  development ;  others  thrive  on  a  soil  that 
is  slightly  acid  and  are  benefitted  little  or  not  at  all  by  applications  of 


COMMERCIAL  FERTILIZERS  45 

lime;  while  still  others  are  actually  reduced  in  yield  where  the  acidity  is 
completely  neutralized.  Hartwell  and  Damon  (69)  report  results  of 
experiments  conducted  by  the  Rhode  Island  Station  to  determine  the 
effects  of  hming  an  acid  soil  on  the  yields  of  various  crops.  In  the  case 
of  vegetables  the  authors  attempted  to  state  the  approximate  relative 
degree  of  benefit  from  liming.  Those  crops  which  were  benefitted  most 
are  placed  in  group  3,  and  those  benefitted  to  a  lesser  degree  are  listed 
in  the  groups  2  and  1  respectively.  Those  crops  which  are  tolerant  of  a 
moderate  degree  of  acidity,  so  that  the  addition  of  lime  resulted  in  only 
a  small  increase  or  an  actual  decrease  in  yield,  are  in  group  0.  Regarding 
the  reliabihty  of  the  data  presented,  Hartwell  and  Damon  make 
the  following  statement: 

It  is  evident  that  in  many  cases  the  experimental  data  are  too  meager  to 
allow  a  satisfactory  classification;  in  a  few  instances,  however,  results  from  other 
experiments  were  taken  into  consideration  in  making  the  classification.  On  the 
other  hand,  sufficient  data  regarding  certain  kinds  of  plants  have  been  secured  at 
this  station  to  enable  classification  into  a  larger  number  of  groups  than  is 
attempted  here.  When  the  reader  sees  that  "3"  accompanies  a  certain  crop,  he 
may  know  that  inattention  to  lime  requirements  is  liable  to  mean  that  the  crop 
will  not  be  satisfactory.  Even  if  nothing  is  known  regarding  the  requirements  of 
the  soil,  it  is  much  wiser  to  add  Hme  as  a  preparation  for  such  crops  than  to 
attempt  to  grow  them  without  doing  so.  Probably  an  unsatisfactory  growth  of 
these  crops  is  more  often  attributable  to  a  lack  of  basic  materials,  such  as  hme, 
than  to  any  other  cause. 

Of  course  what  has  been  said  regarding  crops  in  group  "3"  is  applicable  in  a 
lesser  degree  to  the  crops  marked  "  2."  The  crops  accompanied  by  "  1 "  generally 
made  a  better  growth  on  plat  29  (limed)  than  upon  plat  27  (unlimed)  but  upon  a 
soil  somewhat  less  acid  than  that  of  plat  27  quite  satisfactory  growth  might  be 
secured  without  Hming. 

It  will  of  course  be  understood  that  the  figures  used  to  represent  the  degrees 
of  benefit  from  liming  are  only  relative,  since  the  absolute  amount  of  benefit 
for  neutralizing  purposes  depends  largely  upon  the  amount  of  soil  acidity  and 
upon  whether  the  lime  is  applied  in  such  amounts  and  in  such  a  way  that  the 
greatest  possible  beneficial  effects  are  secured.  Injudicious  Hming  may  result 
in  a  decreased  crop  under  conditions  where  an  application  made  properly  would  be 
beneficial.  Especially  where  the  acidity  is  either  not  large,  or  the  crop  is  tolerant 
of  the  same,  the  effects  of  lime  are  quite  variable  depending  upon  the  form  of 
lime  and  the  method  of  application. 

In  Table  VII  the  crops  are  grouped  according  to  their  response  to 
applications  of  lime  as  shown  by  the  results  secured  by  the  Rhode  Island 
Station.  Instead  of  listing  the  crops  in  alphabetical  order  as  given  by 
Hartwell  and  Damon,  the  author  has  grouped  them  according  to  their 
response  to  lime. 

Coville  (31)  lists  turnip,  radish,  sweet  potato  and  carrot  as  being 
tolerant  to  soil  acidity.     No  doubt  many  more  crops  are  tolerant  to 


46 


VEGETABLE  CROPS 


Table  VII. — The  Effects  of  Liming  an  Acid  Soil  on  the  Growth  of  Different 
Kinds  of  Vegetable  Plants.     (Data  from  R.  I.  Bull.   160) 


Group  0 

Group  1 

Group  2 

Group  3 

Beans,  snap 

Brussels  sprouts 

Broccoli 

Asparagu.s 

Beans,  field 

Carrots 

Cabbage 

Beets 

Beans,  lima 

Chard 

Cauliflower 

Celery 

Chicory 

Collards 

Eggplant 

Leek 

Corn,  sweet 

Cucumbers 

Martynia 

Lettuce 

Corn,  pop 

Dandelion 

Muskmolon 

Onions 

Parsley 

Endive 

Mustard 

Parsnips 

Potato 

Kale 

Pepper 

Radish 

Kohl-rabi 

Salsify 

Tomato 

Peas 

Spinach 

Turnip 

Pumpkin 

*  Watermelon 

Rhubarb 
Squash 

*  The  watermelon  yield  was  materially  reduced  by  liming. 

slight  acidity,  but  relatively  few  vegetables  produce  good  crops  on  very 
sour  soil. 

At  the  Virginia  Truck  Experiment  Station  the  effect  of  liming  has 
been  studied  with  various  vegetables  and  in  Bulletin  No.  4  of  that  station 
it  is  stated  that:  "Experiments  on  Norfolk  soils  show  that  liming  is 
beneficial  to  all  crops  except  beans,  peas  and  tomatoes."  It  should  be 
noted,  however,  that  only  a  small  number  of  vegetables  was  included 
in  the  experiments  mentioned. 

The  forms  of  lime  commonly  used  are  ground  limestone  (calcium 
carbonate,  Ca  CO3);  burned  Hme  (calcium  oxide,  CaO)  which  is  made  by 
burning  the  calcium  carbonate,  the  burning  setting  free  the  CO2;  and 
slaked  lime  (calcium  hydroxide,  Ca  (0H)o).  The  slaked  lime  is  also 
known  as  caustic  lime  and  hydrated  lime  and  is  formed  from  calcium 
oxide  and  water.  When  burned  limestone  is  exposed  to  air  it  takes  up 
moisture  and  is  gradually  changed  to  the  hydroxide  form.  This  change 
is  rapid  if  the  lime  is  exposed  to  rain  or  if  water  is  artificially  applied. 
The  burned  lime  is  usually  slaked  before  being  spread  on  the  land. 

Land  plaster  or  gypsum  (calciiun  sulphate)  is  sometimes  used  in  the 
place  of  lime,  but  it  does  not  take  the  place  of  any  of  the  forms  of  lime 
in  correcting  acidity.  It  never  neutralizes  acidity,  but  helps  to  make 
neutral  soils  acid.  The  calcium  of  this  compound  is  removed  from  the 
soil  leaving  sulphuric  acid  behind  to  combine  with  some  other  base. 

Value  or  Lime. — Lime  is  used  in  agriculture  mainly  for  the  purpose 
of  neutralizing  acid  soils,  but  in  doing  this  there  are  other  indirect  bene- 
ficial results  such  as  promoting  th(^  decomposition  of  organic  compounds, 


COMMERCIAL  FERTILIZERS  47 

providing  favorable  conditions  for  nitrification  and  assisting  the  growth  of 
nitrogen-gathering  organisms  associated  with  leguminous  plants.  Lime 
may  be  of  value  in  converting  insoluble  forms  of  potassium  and  phos- 
phorus into  soluble  forms.  On  clay  soils  lime  brings  the  fine  particles 
into  aggregates  which  are  loosely  cemented  bj^  calcium  carbonate  and  the 
tilth  of  such  soils  is  thereby  improved.  Sandy  soils  may  be  improved 
by  small  applications  of  lime  as  the  carbonate  serves  to  bind  some  of 
the  particles  together,  making  the  structure  somewhat  firmer  and  increas- 
ing the  water-holding  power. 

While  it  is  often  stated  that  lime  is  not  a  fertilizer  but  rather  a  soil 
amendment,  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  calcium  is  essential  to  growth 
of  higher  plants.  This  fact  has  been  known  by  plant  physiologists 
and  others  for  a  long  time,  but  it  is  only  within  recent  years  that  its 
importance  as  a  constituent  of  the  cell  wall  has  been  recognized.  True 
(168)  has  recently  (1922)  given  a  brief  review  of  the  status  of  our  knowl- 
edge on  the  significance  of  calcium  for  higher  green  plants.  He  points 
out  that  unless  sufficient  calcium  ions  are  present  in  the  culture  media  to 
unite  with  the  pectic  acid  to  form  the  calcium  pectate  middle  lamella  the 
cells  may  disintegrate.  In  solutions  containing  potassium  the  potassium 
ions  unite  with  pectic  acid  to  form  potassium  pectate  which  is  relatively 
soluble  in  water  and  the  cells  disintegrate.  Calcium  ions  actually  diffuse 
out  of  the  calcium  pectate  middle  lamella  into  the  solution.  With 
magnesium  solutions  the  pectic  acid  unites  with  magnesium  ions  to  form 
magnesium  pectate  which  apparently  becomes  toxic.  When  all  of  the 
calcium  becomes  replaced  by  magnesium  the  cells  die.  Death  is  prob- 
ably due  to  the  toxic  action  of  the  magnesium  ions  on  some  of  the  cell 
structures.  True  gives  the  following  practical  results  of  the  studies  that 
have  been  made: 

It  appears  that  a  certain  quantity  of  Ca  ions  must  be  present  in  the  medium 
for  the  maintenance  of  the  chemical  and  functional  integrity  of  the  cell  wall,  as 
well  as  the  chemical  and  functional  integrity  of  the  deeper  lying  living  parts  of 
the  cells  of  absorbing  roots  of  higher  green  plants.  When  this  is  so  maintained, 
absorption  takes  place  in  the  manner  we  are  accustomed  to  call  normal.  When 
this  necessary  minimal  supply  of  Ca  ions  in  the  medium  is  lacking,  be  it  in  soil 
solution,  water  culture,  or  sand  culture,  the  function  of  absorption  is  upset  and  a 
more  or  less  marked  leaching  of  ions  from  the  plant  follows.  In  the  absence  of  this 
necessary  minimum  of  Ca  ions,  the  soil  solution  or  culture  solution  may  be  rich  in 
all  other  required  ions,  but  these  are  useless  to  the  plant.  They  are  unabsorbable. 
This  brings  us,iace  to  face  with  a  condition  of  affairs  in  plant  nutrition  that  has 
not  been  recognized  and  therefore  has  not  been  characterized.  We  may  fairly 
say  that  Ca  ions  make  physiologically  available  other  equally  indispensable 
nutrient  ions.  The  practical  consequences  that  follow  from  this  way  of  looking 
at  the  fertilizer  problem  have  not  thus  far  been  realized.  We  learn  why  from 
earliest  times  civilizations  have  grown  up  on  soils  rich  in  limestone  debris.  We 
learn  why  agriculture  lias  readily  succeeded  in  some  regions,  not  in  others.     We 


48  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

understand  why,  by  the  use  of  Ume,  lands  have  been  rendered  capable  of  support- 
ing largely  increased  populations.  We  are  now  able  to  correlate  these  broad 
facts  with  those  of  cell  physiology  and  to  suggest  perhaps  not  the  calcium  function 
sought  by  Jost,  but  one  way  perhaps  of  many  in  which  higher  green  plants  find 
calcium  necessary. 

From  what  has  been  said  regarding  the  importance  of  calcium  it  might 
be  inferred  that  applications  of  lime  or  some  other  calcium  compound 
to  the  soil  is  always  necessary.  This,  however,  is  not  the  case  since 
many  soils  contain  enough  calcium  to  meet  the  needs  of  crop  plants.  In 
most  mixed  fertilizers  and  in  various  phosphates  calcium  is  present  in 
combination  with  phosphorus,  and  it  is  probable  that  this  would  meet 
the  needs  as  far  as  nutrition  of  the  plant  is  concerned. 

Amount  and  Time  of  Application. — The  amount  of  lime  to  supply 
depends  upon  three  factors:  (1)  The  character  of  the  soil,  (2)  the  kind  of 
crops  grown  and  (3)  the  form  of  lime  used.  On  very  sour  soils  the 
application  may  be  as  heavy  as  3,000  or  4,000  pounds  of  quicklime  to  an 
acre  but  it  is  usually  better  to  make  lighter  applications  more  frequently. 
Heavy  soils,  containing  considerable  organic  matter  can  utilize  large 
amounts  of  calcium  compounds  more  fully  and  with  less  danger  of  injury 
than  light  soils,  poor  in  organic  matter.  On  light  soils  the  application 
should  generally  not  exceed  2,000  pounds  in  one  year  and  1,000  to  1,500 
pounds  would  probably  be  safer. 

It  has  already  been  pointed  out  that  some  crops  require  lime  while 
others  are  injured  if  it  is  present  in  large  amounts  in  the  soil.  However, 
calcium  carbonate  may  be  applied  in  much  larger  amounts  than  quick- 
lime or  slaked  lime  without  risk  of  injuring  the  crops.  In  applying  lime 
it  should  be  kept  in  mind  that  the  constituent  of  value  is  calcium  and  the 
amount  of  the  compound  to  use  should  be  based  on  the  proportion  of 
calcium  to  the  other  elements.  Assuming  that  the  different  forms  are  of 
equal  purity  to  find  out  how  much  slaked  lime  is  equal  to  a  given  amount 
of  quicklime  multiply  the  number  of  pounds  of  quicklime  by  1.3;  to  find 
out  how  much  calcium  carbonate  is  equal  to  a  given  amount  of  quicklime 
multiply  the  latter  by  1.8. 

Lime  is  commonly  applied  in  the  spring,  but  it  may  be  applied  at  any 
other  convenient  time.  It  is  never  well  to  lime  more  than  once  in  a  year 
and  on  many  soils  it  is  not  necessary  more  than  once  in  3  to  5  years. 
The  lime  should  be  evenly  distributed  and,  if  applied  to  the  surface,  it 
should  be  mixed  with  the  soil  by  harrowing. 

Ground  limestone  and  slaked  lime  are  generally  applied  with  a  drill  or 
lime  distributor,  while  quicklime  is  often  put  in  piles  and  allowed  to 
slake  after  which  it  is  spread  with  shovels. 


CHAPTER  VI 
SEEDS  AND  SEED  GROWING 

Good  seed  is  very  essential  to  successful  vegetable  growing.  The 
most  careful  gardener  cannot  achieve  success  with  poor  seed,  even  if  he 
gives  the  greatest  attention  to  all  other  factors  of  production.  Since  the 
cost  of  seed  is  a  small  item  in  the  total  cost  of  production  of  most  vege- 
tables the  very  best  obtainable  seed  should  be  secured.  Seed  to  be  classed 
as  good  must  meet  the  following  requirements:  (1)  Must  be  viable,  (2) 
must  be  free  from  weed  seeds  and  foreign  matter,  (3)  must  be  true  to 
name  and  not  mixed,  (4)  must  be  free  from  diseases  and  (5)  must  produce 
a  good  type  of  product  for  the  variety  in  question. 

Buying  Seeds. — It  is  usually  desirable  to  buy  the  best  seed  procurable 
making  the  cost  a  secondary  consideration.  Cheap  seed  is  usually  the 
most  expensive  in  the  long  run.  The  vegetable  grower  should  secure  all 
the  information  possible  on  reliable  sources  of  seed  of  the  strains  and 
varieties  of  crops  he  grows.  After  getting  this  information  he  should 
determine  for  himself  on  his  own  land  the  strains  that  produce  the 
best  results.  Strain  tests  conducted  at  various  experiment  stations 
have  shown  great  variations  in  yield,  earliness,  uniformity  and  other 
important  qualities,  even  within  a  variety.  This  is  true  for  practically 
all  varieties  of  all  the  important  vegetable  crops,  hence  it  is  important 
to  locate  the  superior  strains  and  then  stick  to  them  until  some  better 
ones  are  found. 

Growers  should  buy  only  from  reliable  dealers  for  such  firms  under- 
stand that  it  is  good  business  to  satisfy  their  customers.  All  reliable  seed 
houses  make  a  specialty  of  some  crop  or  crops,  and  very  often  the  seeds- 
man who  gives  special  attention  to  a  particular  crop  develops  and  main- 
tains superior  strains.  It  usually  pays  to  buy  from  seedsmen  who  take 
pride  in  certain  crops.  In  other  words,  the  up-to-date  gardener  may  buy 
seed  of  tomato  from  one  firm,  of  cabbage  from  another,  of  sweet  corn  from 
still  another,  etc. 

Novelties. — While  the  commercial  gardener  should  make  his  main 
plantings  of  tested  and  reliable  strains  and  varieties  it  is  desirable 
to  try  new  and  promising  kinds.  It  is  by  testing  new,  or  so  called 
new  varieties  and  strains  that  the  best  is  discovered,  but  the  grower 
who  depends  upon  the  highly  advertised  novelties  for  his  commercial 
plantings  usually  fails.  Try  the  new  while  making  a  living  from  the 
old  reliable   kinds.     The   grower  producing  only  a  few  crops  can  well 

49 

4 


50 


VEGETABLE  CROPS 


afford  to  tr}^  the  novelties,,  for  now  and  then  he  will  find  something  of 
distinct  merit. 

Longevity  of  Vegetable  Seeds. — It  is  well  known  that  seeds  of  some 
vegetables  retain  their  vitality  longer  than  seeds  of  others.  Seeds  of 
pumpkins  and  squashes,  for  example,  live  longer  than  seeds  of  carrots, 
onions  and  parsnips.  It  is  also  known  that  any  kind  of  seed  retains  its 
vitality  longer  under  some  condition  than  under  others.  Duvel  (42)  has 
reported  results  of  germination  tests  of  sweet  corn,  onion,  cabbage,  radish, 
carrot,  pea,  bean,  watermelon  and  lettuce  seeds  stored  in  various  sections 
of  the  United  States.  A  comparison  of  the  germination  of  the  seeds  stored 
at  Ann  Arbor,  Michigan,  and  Mobile,  Alabama,  will  serve  to  illustrate  the 
effect  of  climate  on  vitality  of  seeds.  After  the  seeds  had  been  stored  for 
128  days  germination  tests  were  made.  The  percentage  germination  was 
much  higher  at  Ann  Arbor,  Michigan,  than  at  Mobile,  Alabama,  with  the 
exception  of  tomato  and  watermelon.  A  second  test  was  made  in  251 
days  and  the  difference  was  still  greater.  Table  VIII  gives  the  percentage 
germination  of  the  various  seeds  after  being  stored  128  and  251  days. 

Table  VIII. — Effect  of  Climate  on  Vitality  as  Shown  by  Percentage   of 

Germination 

(Adapted  from  B.  P.  I.  Bull.  58) 


Kind  of  seed 

Stored  at  Ann  Arbor, 
Michigan 

Stored  at  Mobile, 
Alabama 

Number  of  days 

Number  of  days 

1280 

2510 

1280 

2510 

Sweet  corn  "A"         

100.0 
92.0 
95.0 
96.0 
82.5 
76.0 
90.0 
98.0 
89.0 

100.0 
82.0 

98.0 
80.0 
97.5 
91.0 
77.5 
86.0 
98.0 
100.0 
98.0 
96.0 
92.5 

80.0 
48.0 
7.0 
64.5 
58.5 
59.0 
69.2 
58.0 
90.0 
98.0 
63.0 

20  0 

Sweet  corn  "B"   

12  0 

Onion 

Cabbage 

Radish 

Carrot 

0.0 
17.0 
51.0 

8.5 

Pea 

Bean 

Tomato       .        

44.0 
0.0 

79.5 

Watermelon 

Lettuce 

64.0 
20.0 

The  low  vitality  of  the  seeds  stored  at  Mobile,  Alabama,  was 
attributed  to  high  humidity,  Duvel  (42)  shows  that  there  was  a  close 
relationship  between  the  rainfall  and  the  loss  in  vitality  of  the  seeds.  The 
loss  was  dircctlj^  proportional  to  the  amount  of  rainfall.  He  states  that 
the  deterioration  is  more  apparent  as  the  temperature  increases,  but  the 
injury  due  to  the  increase  in  temperature  is  dependent  on  the  amount  of 


SEEDS  AND  SEED  GROWING 


51 


moisture  present.     Table  IX  shows  the  relation  of  rainfall  and  tempera- 
ture to  loss  in  vitality  of  13  different  samples  of  seeds. 


Table  IX. 


-Ratio  between  Vitality,  Precipitation  and  Temperatuue 

(Table  VII  B.  P.  I.  Bull.  58) 


Place  where  seeds  were 
stored 

Average  loss 

in  vitality 

13  samples, 

per  cent 

Annual 

precipitation 

inches 

Temperature 

Mean 
F 

Maximum 
F 

Mobile,  Ala 

Baton  Rouge,  La 

71.98 
41.39 
39.58 
33.91 
29.38 
28.41 
2.52 

91.18 
66.37 
48.20 
62.61 
49.76 
42.40 
28.58 

71.4 
72.2 
52.3 
64.4 
73.3 
67.1 
49.12 

96 

98 

Durham,  N.  H 

98 
98 

Lake  City,  Fla 

Wagoner,  Ind 

103 
107 

Ann  Arbor,  Mich 

98 

The  mean  temperatures  given  in  the  above  table  are  not  the  mean 
annual  temperatures,  but  the  averages  covering  the  time  during  which  the 
seeds  were  stored.  From  the  table  it  will  be  seen  that  the  rainfall  is  a 
factor  of  much  greater  importance  than  temperature.  Duvel  explains 
the  apparent  discrepancy  for  Durham,  N.  H.,  by  the  fact  that  the  samples 
were  stored  in  a  hall  which  opened  directly  into  a  chemical  laboratory. 
He  suggests  that  the  low  vitality  of  the  seeds  might  have  been  due  to 
injury  by  gases  from  the  laboratory. 


Table  X.— Length  of  Time  Seeds  May  Be  Expected  to  Retain  Their  Vitality 
When  Properly  Handled 

Kind  of  vegetable 

Years 

Kind  of  vegetable 

Years 

Asparagus 

3 
3 
4 

4 
2 
4 
3 
5 
5 
4 
5 
5 
3 
2 

Parsley 

1 

Bean 

Beet 

Parsnip 

Peas 

1 
2 

Cabbage   

Pepper 

2 

Carrot 

4 

Cauliflower 

Celery 

Radish 

Salsify 

4 
1 

Spinach 

Squash 

4 

Eggplant 

4 

Kale 

Lettuce 

Sweet  corn 

2 
3 

Muskmelon 

Okra 

Turnip 

W^ater  melon 

4 
5 

Onion 

52  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

Experiments  by  Duvel  in  storing  seeds  in  open  and  sealed  bottles  and 
in  packages  with  definite  quantities  of  moisture  and  at  various  known 
temperatures  have  shown  a  very  close  relationship  between  loss  in  vitality 
and  the  increase  in  water  content,  the  deterioration  increasing  also  with 
the  temperature. 

Seeds  to  keep  well  in  storage  must  be  mature,  thoroughly  cured  and 
stored  in  a  dry  place.  The  temperature  under  most  conditions  is  not  an 
important  factor  if  the  moisture  content  is  kept  very  low. 

Since  the  length  of  life  of  seeds  depends  upon  the  kind  of  vegetables 
and  conditions  under  which  the  seeds  are  grown,  cured  and  stored,  the 
figures  given  in  Table  X  are  only  approximate. 

In  considering  the  figures,  in  Table  X  it  should  be  kept  in  mind  that 
there  is  no  way  of  knowing  the  condition  under  which  the  seeds  have 
been  handled,  nor  how  old  they  are  when  secured  from  the  dealer.  Some 
seedsmen  make  a  practice  of  holding  certain  seeds  one  year  for  the  purpose 
of  testing  for  trueness  to  type  so  that  such  seeds  are  two  years  old  when 
put  on  the  market.  In  addition  to  this,  many  seedsmen  put  out  old 
seeds  that  have  been  left  over,  especially  of  the  kinds  which  retain  their 
vitality  for  several  years.  The  only  sure  way  to  determine  the  vitality 
of  seeds  is  to  make  a  germination  test. 

Seed  Testing. — The  term  "seed  testing"  is  usually  used  in  connection 
with  purity  and  viability.  Since  vegetable  seeds  are  fairly  free  from 
impurities,  testing  for  purity  is  not  of  much  value,  but  testing  for  viability 
or  germinating  qualities  is  important,  for  such  a  test  may  be  the  means  of 
avoiding  losses  due  to  sowing  seed  of  low  germinating  power.  By  making 
a  germination  test  the  gardener  knows  how  much  seed  to  plant  to  get  a 
good  stand  and  may  save  time  by  avoiding  the  necessity  of  replanting. 
Seed  kept  over  from  one  year  to  the  next  should  always  be  tested  for 
germination  before  planting,  because  some  seeds  completely  lose  their 
viabihty  in  one  year  and  many  others  lose  considerably  in  vitality  and 
produce  weak  plants.  A  simple  method  of  making  a  germination  test 
is  to  count  out  25,  50  or  100  seeds  of  the  sample  to  be  tested  and  to  place 
these  between  folds  of  moist  blotting  paper  or  moist  cloth  (cotton  flannel). 
The  blotting  paper  or  cloth  is  placed  in  a  soup  plate  and  another  plate  is 
inverted  over  the  lower  one  to  prevent  rapid  drying.  The  seeds  should 
be  placed  in  a  warm  room  and  kept  moist,  but  not  wet,  by  sprinkling 
the  blotting  paper  or  cloth  with  water.  As  the  seeds  sprout  they  are 
counted  and  thrown  away.  The  rapidity  of  germination  and  the  vigor  of 
the  sprout  should  be  noted,  for  seeds  which  germinate  very  slowly  and 
produce  weak  sprouts  may  fail  to  produce  plants  when  planted  outside. 

Variety  and  Strain  Testing. — Testing  for  trueness  to  type  is  more 
important  than  testing  for  purity  and  germination  since  there  is  little 
loss  from  impurities  or  low  germination.  Most  vegetable  seeds  are 
clean  and  have  a  fair  germination,  but  very  often  the  crop  produced 


SEEDS  AND  SEED  GROWING  53 

is  not  true  to  type.  It  is  not  uncommon  to  find  fields  of  Golden  Self- 
blanching  celery  with  a  large  percentage  of  off-type  green  stalks.  Ten 
to  15  per  cent  off -type  plants  is  not  exceptional  and  sometimes  it  is 
much  higher.  In  fact,  the  writer  has  seen  whole  plantings,  of  several 
acres  in  extent,  turn  out  to  be  large  green  celery  instead  of  Golden  Self- 
blanching  which  the  grower  thought  he  was  getting.  Many  celery 
growers  are  now  testing  all  of  their  seeds  a  year  in  advance  and  are  avoid- 
ing the  losses  due  to  poor  strains,  mixed  seed,  etc.  The  cost  of  celery 
seed  is  a  very  small  item  compared  to  the  cost  of  planting  and  growing 
the  crop  so  that  it  pays  to  be  sure  of  the  strain  before  planting  on  a  large 
scale.  Some  of  the  large  associations  arrange  with  seed  dealers  to  furnish 
samples  of  seed  in  advance  so  that  the  lots  may  be  tested  without  purchas- 
ing the  whole  amount  needed  for  the  following  year.  The  seed  giving 
the  best  results  is  purchased  and  the  other  lots  are  released.  Many 
reliable  seedsmen  are  willing  to  do  this  because  they  retain  their  large 
customers  and  also  get  a  good  price  for  the  seed  which  has  proved  satis- 
factory. Cabbage,  cauliflower  and  other  seeds  may  be  and  are  some- 
times tested  in  the  same  way.  Testing  for  trueness  to  type  is  more 
important  for  those  crops  grown  from  seed  started  in  seed  beds  and  trans- 
planted than  for  crops  whose  seeds  are  planted  in  place  because  the  seeds 
of  the  former  represent  such  a  small  part  of  the  cost  of  the  crop. 

Great  differences  in  yield  and  other  characters  exist  between  strains 
of  the  same  variety  and  it  is  only  by  trial  that  the  superior  strains  are 
found.  Myers  (119)  has  reported  tests  on  29  strains  of  Jersey 
Wakefield  cabbage  covering  a  period  of  3  years  and  on  24  strains 
of  Charleston  Wakefield  for  the  same  period.  In  the  former  the 
lowest  yielding  strain  produced  6.93  tons  and  the  highest  10.76  tons 
to  the  acre.  There  was  a  still  greater  variation  in  earliness;  the  earliest 
strain  producing  2.88  tons  and  the  latest  0.22  tons  per  acre  at  the  first 
cutting.  The  average  weight  per  head  varied  from  1.09  to  1.69  pounds. 
With  Charleston  Wakefield  the  highest  average  yield  was  11.53  tons  and 
the  lowest  8.07  tons  per  acre.  The  yield  at  the  first  cutting  varied  from 
1.79  to  6.46  tons  per  acre  and  the  average  weight  per  head  varied  from 
1.57  to  1.92  pounds.  Similar  results  are  reported  for  midseason  and  late 
varieties  of  cabbage. 

Zimmerley  (189)  has  recently  (1922)  reported  results  of  2  years' 
experiments  with  Jersey  Wakefield  and  Charleston  Wakefield  at  Norfolk, 
Virginia.  These  show  similar  variations  to  those  reported  by  Myers. 
The  average  total  yield  of  Early  Jersey  Wakefield  per  acre  varied  from 
6.54  to  9.87  tons,  while  the  average  of  all  strains  was  8.56  tons.  In  earli- 
ness there  was  a  greater  variation,  the  latest  strain  producing  only  0.9. 
of  a  ton  per  acre  at  the  early  harvest  while  the  earliest  strain  produced 
5.43  tons  at  the  same  time.  The  average  total  yield  of  these  two  strains 
was  practically  the  same.     With  Charleston  Wakefield  the  lowest  total 


54  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

yield  was  10.60  and  the  highest  14.22  tons  per  acre.  The  lowest  yield 
at  early  harvest  was  0.4  and  the  highest  3.50  tons  per  acre. 

Strain  tests  have  been  made  with  many  other  vegetables  and  they 
show  similar  results  to  those  given  for  cabbage. 

Relation  of  Size  of  Seed  to  Crop  Yield. — Many  experiments  have 
been  conducted  during  the  past  30  to  40  years  to  determine  the 
effects  on  the  jaeld  of  crops  of  the  size  of  seeds  planted.  Many  of  these 
experiments  dealt  with  field  seeds,  but  some  of  the  investigators  worked 
with  vegetable  seeds.  In  general,  it  may  be  said  that  experimental 
results  have  shown  an  advantage  in  favor  of  large  seeds.  The  most 
complete  study  of  this  question  that  has  come  to  the  author's  attention 
is  that  reported  from  the  Vermont  Station  by  Cummings  (35).  He 
worked  with  sweet  peas,  sweet  pumpkin,  Hubbard  squash,  lettuce,  beans, 
parsley,  radish,  spinach  and  peas.  A  summary  of  the  results  of  this 
study  will  suffice  to  show  the  importance  of  eliminating  the  small  seed. 

Experiments  with  sweet  pumpkin  showed  an  advantage  in  earliness 
from  the  large  'seed.  Seventy-six  plants  grown  from  large  seeds  pro- 
duced 65  more  ripe  fruits  and  310  pounds  more  edible  product  than  the 
same  number  of  plants  from  small  seeds.  The  plants  from  large  seeds 
averaged  1%  ripe  fruit  per  vine  or  9}q  pounds,  while  the  plants  from  small 
seeds  averaged  less  than  one  ripe  fruit  or  a  trifle  over  5  pounds. 
The  plants  from  small  seeds  produced  a  greater  number  of  fruits  but  they 
were  green  at  the  normal  time  of  harvest. 

With  Hubbard  squash  the  large  seed  produced  larger  fruits  but  no 
greater  number.  Seventy-five  plants  grown  from  large  seed  produced 
166  pounds  more  salable  squash  than  the  same  number  of  plants  from 
small  seed.  "The  higher  yielding  capacity  of  large  seed  is  not  due  to 
earlier  germination,  for  the  plants  were  nearly  uniform  in  this  respect. 
The  seedlings  derived  from  large  seed  were  more  stocky  and  hence  it 
may  be  assumed  that  the  production  gain  is  attributed  to  the  greater 
size  of  the  embryos.  A  stronger  growth  force  and  greater  vitality  is 
therefore  ascribed  to  plants  which  are  grown  from  large  seed." 

Five  varieties  of  lettuce  were  used  in  these  experiments,  namely 
Hittinger's  Belmont  Forcing,  Boston  Forcing,  Hanson,  Deacon  and 
Iceberg.  The  large  seed  produced  a  greater  total  weight  of  plants,  a 
larger  percentage  of  heads  and  greater  uniformity  at  edible  maturity, 
than  small  seed.  The  author  states  that  in  every  instance  and  at  almost 
every  stage  of  growth  it  could  be  seen  that  the  plants  grown  from  large 
seed  were  much  more  uniform  in  stature  and  in  time  and  manner  cf 
heading. 

Experiments  with  beans  extended  over  three  seasons  and  attention 
was  directed  chiefly  to  earhness,  yield  and  the  relative  importance  of 
size  and  of  past  productivity.  In  comparison  with  medium  sized  seed, 
laige  seed  produced  an  early  crop  and  small  seed  a  late  crop.     In  com- 


SEEDS  AND  SEED  GROWING  55 

paring  past  productivity  with  present  size  the  author  states  that  it 
appeared  that  the  basis  of  selection  influences  the  yield,  that  heredity  is 
probably  of  more  importance  than  size  and  that  neither  heredity  nor 
size  can  be  reckoned  with  alone  without  recognizing  the  influence  of  the 
other  factor.  The  amount  of  production  either  of  full  or  empty  pods 
shows  that  there  is  much  advantage  in  the  use  of  large  seed;  and  this 
holds  whether  string  beans  or  seed  beans  are  considered. 

Parsley  plants  from  large  seed  produced  larger  leaves,  more  leaves  per 
plant  and  continued  to  be  more  vigorous  even  after  two  cuttings  have 
been  made. 

Two  varieties  of  radishes,  French  Breakfast  and  Early  Scarlet  Globe, 
were  used  and  sixteen  different  trials  were  made.  The  weight  of  the 
edible  portion  of  the  plants  was  approximately  50  per  cent  greater  from 
large  than  from  small  seed.  The  viability  of  large  seed  was  much  better 
than  of  small  seed,  and  the  radishes  from  large  seed  reached  edible  matur- 
ity earlier  than  those  grown  from  small  seed. 

Large  seed  regardless  of  its  source,  of  mixed  or  unmixed  heritage  is  superior  to 
small  seed  of  the  same  source,  because  it  gives  larger  plants,  greater  uniformity  of 
stand  at  edible  maturity,  and  a  maturation  gain  of  7  to  10  days.  In  actual 
practice  this  advantage  may  be  secured  by  sifting  out  and  discarding  the  small 
seed. 

Seven  tests  were  made  with  spinach,  Victoria  and  Long  Standing.  The 
plants  grown  from  large  seed  were  earher,  heavier,  and  more  leafy,  than 
those  grown  from  small  seed.  The  total  yield  from  large  seed  was  14 
per  cent  greater  than  from  small  seed. 

Seed  Growing. — Seed  growing  is  a  highly  speciahzed  business 
requiring  particular  knowledge  and  skill;  therefore,  most  gardeners  should 
purchase  their  seeds  through  the  regular  channels.  Seeds  of  many  crops 
are  grown  commercially  in  regions  where  the  soil  and  cHmatic  conditions 
are  favorable  and  some  are  produced  largely  in  foreign  countries  where 
labor  costs  are  much  lower  than  in  the  United  States.  Some  crops,  such 
as  cabbage,  cauliflower  and  peas  thrive  best  in  a  cool  climate,  while  others 
such  as  watermelons  grow  best  in  a  warm  climate.  California  is  an 
important  seed-growing  state  because  the  climatic  conditions  for  curing 
and  handling  seeds  are  almost  ideal.  In  humid  regions  there  is  danger  of 
loss  at  harvest  time  due  to  rains,  hence  a  dry  region  is  preferable,  other 
things  being  equal. 

While  most  gardeners  should  purchase  a  large  part  of  their  seeds,  there 
are  many  progressive  men  who  are  growing  all  of  their  seeds  of  certain 
crops,  and  finding  it  especially  profitable.  The  growing  of  seed  at  home 
may  be  profitable  because  of  high  quality  crop  produced  by  carefully 
grown  seed.  It  is  doubtful  if  the  gardener  can  produce  seed  as  cheaply 
as  the  commercial  seed  grower,  but  he  should  be  able  to  produce  seed 


56  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

better  adapted  to  his  conditions.  Before  undertaking  to  grow  seeds  the 
gardener  should  know  what  he  wants  and  how  to  go  about  getting  it.  He 
should  have  thoroughly  fixed  in  mind  the  type  of  plant  or  plant  product 
he  wishes  and  then  should  know  the  methods  to  use  to  secure  his  ideal. 
For  most  gardeners  simple  selection  for  the  desired  characters  should  be 
followed.  The  grower  should  also  know  how  to  grow  and  handle  seed  of 
the  kinds  he  wishes  to  produce.  At  first  he  should  attempt  to  grow 
only  those  requiring  the  least  expert  knowledge  of  seed  growing.  Crossing 
and  hybridization  are  too  complicated  for  anyone  but  a  specialist. 

In  seed  growing  one  of  the  serious  problems  is  to  isolate  the  seed 
plats  so  that  there  is  no  danger  of  cross-pollination.  Some  crops  are 
normally  cross-pollinated  while  others  are  normally  self-pollinated.  With 
the  latter  class  it  is  fairly  safe  to  plant  different  varieties  together  without 
danger  of  crossing  while  with  the  former  class  it  is  not  safe  to  plant  two 
varieties  near  together  and  in  some  cases  it  is  not  safe  to  plant  closely 
related  species  near  together. 

The  following  crops  are  normally  self-pollinated  and  different  varieties 
may  be  planted  together  with  little  danger  of  crossing: 
Beans,  lettuce,  peas,  lima  beans,  tomatoes. 

The  blossoms  of  the  following  crops  are  normally  cross-pollinated 
and  varieties  and  closely  related  species  should  be  segregated: 

Beets. 

Cabbage  (crosses  readily  with  cauliflower,  kale,  rape,  etc.  if  blossoming  at  same 
time). 

Cauliflower  (crosses  with  cabbage,  etc.). 

Kale  (crosses  with  closely  related  species). 

Kohl-rabi  (crosses  with  closely  related  species). 

Turnips  (cross  with  closely  related  species). 

Radish  (crosses  readily  with  wild  radish). 

Carrot  (crosses  readily  with  wild  carrot). 

Corn,  sweet  (crosses  readily  with  field  corn). 

Cucumbers  (cross  with  gherkins,  but  not  with  muskmelons,  watermelons,  or 
squashes). 

Muskmelon  (does  not  cross  with  melons,  pumpkins  or  squashes). 

Pumpkins  (cross  with  pumpkins  and  squashes  belonging  to  same  species). 

Watermelon  (crosses  with  citron  melon  but  not  with  other  curcurbits). 

Parsnip  (crosses  with  wild  parsnip). 

Spinach. 

Salsify. 

Okra. 

In  growing  seeds  of  crops  that  are  readily  cross-pollinated  and  cross 
with  closely  related  plants  it  is  necessary  to  have  considerable  land  if 
seed  of  several  varieties  is  to  be  grown.  The  distances  necessary  to 
separate  varieties  depend  upon  the  crop  and  method  of  pollination. 
Wind-blown  pollen  from  corn  may  be  carried  considerable  distances. 


SEEDS  AND  SEED  GROWING  57 

Another  serious  problem  confronting  the  seed  grower  in  many  regions 
is  the  holding  over  of  the  plants  saved  for  seed.  This  is  true  of  biennial 
crops,  especially  cabbage,  cauliflower,  Brussels  sprouts  and  celery. 
Holding  such  crops  as  beets,  carrots,  parsnips  and  turnips  from  harvest 
time  in  the  fall  until  time  for  planting  in  the  spring  is  not  a  simple  propo- 
sition, and,  in  most  regions  is  accompanied  by  considerable  expense  and 
some  loss.  The  beginner  would  do  well  to  start  with  annuals,  especially 
such  crops  as  tomatoes,  beans,  peas,  sweet  corn,  melons,  squashes,  pump- 
kins and  others  easily  grown.  He  should  not  attempt  to  grow  seeds  where 
the  climatic  conditions  are  very  unfavorable  to  production,  harvesting 
and  curing,  nor  should  he  attempt  to  grow  seed  of  more  than  one  variety 
of  any  crop  which  readily  crosses  unless  sufficient  land  is  available  to 
isolate  the  plantings. 

Since  seed  growing  is  a  special  subject  it  is  not  within  the  scope  of  this 
book  to  do  more  than  point  out  a  few  factors  that  should  be  considered 
before  undertaking  the  work.  Those  interested  in  seed-growing  methods 
are  referred  to  special  books  and  bulletins  covering  the  subject. 


CHAPTER  VII 
GREENHOUSES,  HOTBEDS  AND  COLD  FRAMES 

GREENHOUSES 

Since  greenhouse  construction  and  management  are  subjects  of  special 
courses  in  most  agricultural  colleges  they  are  discussed  here  only  from 
the  standpoint  of  use  by  the  market  gardener  as  an  adjunct  to  his  outdoor 
gardening.  Most  up-to-date  market  gardeners  in  the  North  have  at 
least  a  small  greenhouse  to  start  plants  during  the  winter  and  early 
spring  and  many  have  large  ranges  for  growing  crops  to  maturity  during 
the  forcing  season.  Market  gardeners  have  entered  the  forcing  business 
by  utilizing  the  greenhouses  for  growing  crops  to  maturity  when  the 
space  is  not  needed  for  starting  plants. 

Advantages  of  Greenhouses. — ^For  the  market  gardener  and  the  truck 
grower  in  the  North  the  greenhouse  is  far  superior  for  starting  plants  to 
the  hotbed  or  the  cold  frame.  Some  of  the  advantages  are:  (1)  The 
temperature  can  be  more  easily  controlled  in  greenhouses  than  in  other 
forcing  structures,  (2)  the  ventilation  can  be  regulated  much  better  and 
there  is  much  less  danger  of  chilling  the  plants,  (3)  the  facihties  for  work 
are  more  convenient  in  a  greenhouse  than  in  hotbeds,  (4)  the  plants  can 
be  watered  and  otherwise  cared  for  better  and  at  less  expense  in  green- 
houses than  in  hotbeds  and  cold  frames.  During  early  spring  there  is 
danger  of  chilling  plants  in  hotbeds  when  the  sash  is  removed  for  water- 
ing, transplanting,  etc.  There  is  no  such  danger  in  greenhouses.  The 
use  of  greenhouses  for  growing  crops  to  maturity  has  many  advantages 
for  the  market  gardener.  These  advantages  are :  (1)  EnabHng  the  grower 
to  keep  in  touch  with  the  market  during  the  whole  year,  (2)  providing 
employment  for  the  regular  help  during  the  winter  and  (3)  utihzing  the 
grower's  time  to  good  advantage  and  adding  to  his  income.  The  demand 
for  fresh  vegetables  during  the  winter  has  increased  very  rapidly  within 
recent  years  and  is  still  on  the  increase.  This  is  especially  true  of  lettuce, 
tomatoes  and  cucumbers.  As  people  learn  more  and  more  the  value  of 
vegetables  in  the  diet,  the  demand  for  fresh  vegetables  increases  and  for 
this  reason  the  vegetable  forcing  industry  may  be  expected  to  continue 
to  grow.  Market  gardeners  are  hkely  to  engage  in  the  forcing  industry 
to  keep  up  with  the  demand. 

HOTBEDS 

Use  of  Hotbeds. — The  main  use  for  hotbeds  is  for  starting  plants  to 
be  grown  in  the  garden  or  field,  although  they  are  used  to  a  considerable 

58 


HOTBEDS  AND  COLD  FRAMES  59 

extent  to  grow  crops  to  maturity  out  of  the  normal  growing  season. 
Before  greenhouses  came  into  such  general  use,  nearly  all  market  garden- 
ers depended  upon  hotbeds  for  starting  plants  such  as  cabbage,  tomatoes, 
eggplants,  peppers,  etc.  Even  where  they  have  greenhouses  most  gar- 
deners still  use  hotbeds.  Practically  all  market  gardeners  in  the  North, 
who  do  not  have  greenhouses  for  starting  plants  during  winter  or  early 
spring,  use  hotbeds  for  this  purpose.  Hotbeds  are  also  used  in  many 
sections  of  the  South  for  starting  plants  as  well  as  for  growing  crops,  such 
as  lettuce  and  radishes,  to  maturity. 

Location. — The  main  considerations  in  locating  hotbeds  are:  (1)  Near- 
ness to  the  farm  buildings  so  that  they  can  be  cared  for  with  the  least 
trouble;  (2)  proximity  to  a  good  water  supply;  (3)  protection  from  the  cold 
winds  by  locating  them  on  the  south  or  southeast  side  of  a  hill,  on  the 
protected  side  of  buildings,  or  by  means  of  windbreaks,  board  fences  or 
walls.  Where  no  suitable  protection  is  already  available  a  tight  fence 
about  5  feet  high  is  often  constructed  on  the  north  and  west  sides  of  the 
frames. 

Southern  or  southeastern  exposures  are  preferable  because  beds  will 
secure  more  sunshine  with  these  exposures  than  with  others.  Where 
there  is  more  than  one  row  of  frames  they  should  be  parallel  to  each  other, 
with  ample  spaces  between  the  rows  for  the  handling  of  the  sashes  and 
mats.  Eight  to  ten  feet  space  between  the  rows  of  frames  is  desirable, 
if  the  land  is  not  too  valuable. 

The  Hotbed  Pit. — Most  hotbeds  are  heated  by  the  fermentation  of 
horse  manure  in  pits  made  for  the  purpose.  The  pit  should  be  well 
drained  so  that  water  will  not  collect  in  it  and  prevent  fermentation  of 
the  manure.  The  pit  should  be  about  the  same  width  as  the  frame, 
which  is  usually  6  feet,  although  it  will  sometimes  carry  two  rows  of 
hotbed  sash  sloping  in  opposite  directions.  The  depth  of  the  pit  depends 
upon  the  length  of  time  the  bed  is  to  be  used,  the  longer  the  period  the 
deeper  the  pit  should  be  because  more  manure  is  needed- for  a  hotbed  to 
be  used  for  three  months  than  one  used  only  for  one  or  two  months. 
Most  pits  are  24  to  36  inches  deep.  In  the  North  more  manure  is  used 
than  in  the  South.  For  starting  tomatoes,  eggplants  and  peppers  more 
manure  is  needed  than  for  cabbage,  lettuce  and  celery,  because  the  latter 
crops  do  not  require  as  high  temperatures  as  the  former.  As  a  rule  18  to 
36  inches  of  manure  is  used  in  hotbed  pits  in  the  North  while  a  depth  of  12 
to  18  inches  is  sufficient  for  starting  plants  in  many  sections  of  the  South. 

The  Hotbed  Frame. — The  frame  may  be  made  of  wood,  cement,  brick 
or  stone,  the  first  two  materials  being  the  most  common.  Where  wood  is 
used  in  making  a  permanent  hotbed  2  by  4-inch  lumber  is  used  for  posts. 
These  posts  are  driven  into  the  ground  at  the  corners  of  the  bed  and  at 
intervals  of  4  to  6  feet  along  the  sides  of  the  bed.  Boards  or  planks  are 
nailed  to  these  posts.     It  is  desirable  to  use  a  double  layer  of  1-inch 


60  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

boards  or  one  layer  of  2-inch  planks  for  the  frame.  The  frame  may  or 
may  not  extend  to  the  bottom  of  the  pit,  but  in  any  case  it  should  extend 
12  to  18  inches  above  the  surface  of  the  ground  on  the  back  side  (usually 
north  side)  and  6  to  12  inches  on  the  front,  thus  affording  a  slope  prefer- 
ably to  the  south.  Every  3  feet  a  crossbar  or  slide  should  be  placed  for 
the  sash  to  rest  upon.  For  these  crossbars,  2  by  3-inch  pieces  are  satis- 
factory. A  3^-inch  strip  nailed  in  the  center  of  these  crossbars  to  pre- 
vent binding  of  the  sash  is  an  advantage.  In  all  permanent  hotbeds 
durable  wood  should  be  used.  Cedar,  locust  or  chestnut  for  the  posts 
and  cypress  or  chestnut  for  the  frame  are  satisfactory. 

Concrete  is  being  used  by  many  gardeners  for  hotbed  frames.  This 
is  much  more  durable  than  wood  and  is  cheaper  in  the  long  run.  In 
making  frames  of  concrete  the  mixture  is  poured  into  forms  in  the  usual 
way. 

Sash. — Only  the  most  durable  wood  should  be  used  in  making  hot- 
bed sash.  Cypress  and  cedar  are  popular  for  this  purpose.  Sashes  differ 
in  size,  but  the  most  common  size  is  3  by  6  feet.  A  larger  sash  is  too 
heavy  to  handle  and  is  more  subject  to  breakage.  Most  gardeners  buy 
the  sash  already  made,  and  this  practice  is  usually  wise,  although  it  is 
advisable  to  inquire  into  the  type  of  construction  and  the  wood  used. 

The  sash  should  be  painted  before  being  glazed.  A  good  grade  of 
glass  is  always  desirable,  although  cheaper  grades  are  sometimes  used. 
The  glass  is  generally  lapped  about  %  inch.  Some  gardeners  prefer  to 
butt  the  glass,  but  if  the  ends  do  not  fit  closely  there  will  be  considerable 
leakage.  Each  3  by  6-foot  sash  is  usually  made  for  three  rows  of  10  by 
12-inch  glass,  requiring  18  panes  for  each  sash.  The  glass  is  fastened  by 
glazing  points,  and  then  putty  or  mastica  or  some  similar  substance  is 
applied  along  the  edges  of  the  glass  against  the  sash-bars.  These 
materials  prevent  water  from  running  down  under  the  glass.  After 
glazing,  the  sash  should  be  painted  again.  Each  year  a  coat  of  paint 
should  be  given  to  protect  them  against  decay. 

Double  glass  sashes  are  sometimes  used  and  they  possess  some  advan- 
tages although  the  disadvantages  more  than  offset  the  advantages 
in  the  judgment  of  most  gardeners.  Some  of  the  advantages  are:  (1) 
Plants  are  protected  almost  as  much  where  double-glass  sash  is  used  as 
with  the  ordinary  sash  covered  with  mats,  (2)  less  labor  is  required  in 
managing  the  frames  because  mats  are  not  used  with  the  double-glazed 
sash,  (3)  the  temperature  is  raised  more  quickly  in  the  morning  and 
is  maintained  longer  unless  there  is  little  or  no  sunshine.  The  dis- 
advantages are:  (1)  Double  glazed  sash  is  heavier  to  handle,  (2)  it  costs 
about  one-third  more,  (3)  the  amount  of  light  reaching  the  plants  is  less 
because  of  two  layers  of  glass  and  the  accumulation  of  dirt  and  moisture 
between  the  layers.  It  is  also  thought  that  moisture  retained  between 
the  layers  of  glass  will  hasten  decay  of  the  wood. 


HOTBEDS  AND  COLD  FRAMES  61 

Manure -heated  Hotbeds. — Fresh  horse  manure  is  used  for  heating 
hotbeds  to  quite  a  large  extent,  although  steam,  hot-water  and  hot-air 
are  also  used.  The  manure  must  be  fairly  fresh  or  very  little  heat  will 
be  generated.  Two  parts  excrement  to  one  part  straw  or  other  litter 
will  give  good  results.     Manure  with  shavings  as  litter  is  not  satisfactory. 

Preparation  of  manure  for  the  hotbed  should  begin  10  days  to  2  weeks 
before  the  beds  are  to  be  needed.  If  fresh  manure  from  the  stable  is 
used  it  should  be  placed  in  a  flat  pile  about  4  feet  high,  4  to  5  feet  wide 
and  any  length  desired.  If  dry  at  the  time  of  piling  the  manure  should 
be  moistened  in  order  to  start  fermentation.  In  2  or  3  days  the 
manure  will  begin  to  steam.  When  fermentation  is  well  under  way  the 
pile  should  be  turned  to  insure  uniform  heating  throughout.  In  turning 
the  manure  that  from  the  interior  of  the  pile  should  be  placed  on  the 
exterior  of  the  new  pile.  In  2  or  3  days  after  turning  the  manure  should 
be  in  condition  for  placing  in  the  pit. 

In  filling  the  pit  the  manure  should  be  thrown  in  layers  of  5  or  6  inches 
and  each  layer  trampled  fairly  well,  especially  along  the  sides  and  ends 
of  the  pit.  The  manure  will  settle  several  inches  and  allowance  should 
be  made  for  this.  Sometimes  a  layer  of  3  or  4  inches  of  straw  is  put  over 
the  manure  in  order  to  have  a  more  even  distribution  of  heat  and  prevent 
"hot  spots"  in  the  soil.  A  layer  of  4  to  6  inches  of  good  soil  is  put  on  the 
manure  or  straw,  although  2  inches  of  soil  is  sufficient  if  the  seeds  are 
sown  in  flats  instead  of  in  the  soil  of  the  bed. 

Temporary  hotbeds  are  made  by  placing  the  frames  on  the  top  of 
a  pile  of  fermenting  manure.  The  frames  are  usually  banked  with 
manure  as  protection  from  cold.  More  manure  is  required  where  the 
frame  is  set  on  the  pile,  because  the  pile  must  be  considerably  wider 
and  longer  than  the  frame.  This  type  of  hotbed  is  desirable  where 
drainage  is  poor. 

Flue-heated  Beds. — Hotbeds  are  often  heated  by  flues  leading  from 
a  furnace.  This  system  is  used  to  a  considerable  extent  for  heating 
sweet-potato  plant  beds  in  some  of  the  northern  sections  of  the  sweet 
potato  belt,  and  is  also  used  for  other  plants.  This  method  of  heating 
is  considered  more  economical  than  manure. 

The  flue-heated  bed  is  usually  6  or  12  feet  wide  and  of  the  length 
desired.  The  side  walls  of  a  permanent  bed  are  usually  made  of  concrete, 
stone  or  brick,  but  wood  is  sometimes  used.  A  home-made  brick  furnace 
may  be  constructed  in  a  pit  at  one  end  and  below  the  level  of  the  bottom 
of  the  bed.  The  furnace  should  be  so  located  that  it  can  be  fired  from 
the  outside.  The  smoke  and  hot  air  are  carried  through  a  line  of  flue 
tiles,  or  pipes  6  inches  or  more  in  diameter,  placed  under  the  bed,  and 
pass  out  through  a  chimney  at  the  farther  end  of  the  bed.  The  line  of  tile 
or  pipe  should  not  be  horizontal  but  slope  gradually  upward  from  the  fur- 
nace to  the  chimney.     This  rise  should  be  about  1  foot  in  every  25  feet  of 


02  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

run.  The  floor  of  the  bed  is  usually  made  of  boards  placed  on  timbers 
laid  across  the  bed.  The  pipe  or  flue  should  occupy  a  free  space  or  pit 
beneath  the  bed.  Whenever  the  flue  is  near  the  floor  or  is  likely  to  get 
very  hot  it  should  be  covered  with  asbestos  cloth  to  protect  the  bed 
against  fire.     Either  coal  or  wood  may  be  used  as  fuel. 

Heating  with  Steam  and  Hot  Water. — Both  steam  and  hot-water 
heating  systems  are  being  used  at  the  present  time  for  heating  hotbeds. 
Where  gardeners  have  hot- water  or  steam  heating  systems  for  greenhouses 
or  other  structures  the  frames  are  often  heated  by  the  same  sj^stem.  The 
temperature  can  be  controlled  better  with  hot  water  or  steam  than  by 
either  of  the  other  methods,  since  the  amount  of  heat  can  be  increased  or 
decreased  as  conditions  warrant,  merely  by  turning  the  valves  in  the  pipes. 

The  heating  pipes  usually  2  to  4  in  number  are  commonly  placed  on 
supports  in  the  hotbed  pit,  the  pipes  running  the  length  of  the  bed. 
The  floor  of  the  bed  is  as  a  rule  placed  6  to  12  inches  above  the  lines 
of  heating  pipes.  Sometimes  a  line  of  pipe  is  run  around  the  frame  on 
the  inside  just  beneath  the  glass,  or  in  case  of  a  double  width  hotbed, 
beneath  the  ridge  in  the  center  and  around  the  sides.  Pipes  placed 
above  the  plants  in  this  way  are  used  mainly  to  protect  against  frost 
in  early  spring. 

Hotbed  Covers. — The  ordinary  hotbed  covered  with  sash  needs  some 
protection  during  cold  weather.  It  is  necessary  to  cover  the  beds 
every  cold  night  and  sometimes  during  the  entire  day  in  early  spring, 
especially  for  tender  plants,  such  as  tomatoes,  eggplant,  peppers,  melons, 
etc.  Old  matting,  carpets  or  heavy  burlap  may  be  used,  but  most 
gardeners  use  straw  mats.  These  mats  are  sold  by  dealers  in  garden 
supplies  but  they  may  be  made  at  home. 

COLD  FRAMES 

Use  of  Cold  Frames. — There  are  four  general  purposes  for  which 
cold  frames  are  used :  (1)  For  starting  plants  in  the  spring;  (2)  for  harden- 
ing off  plants  which  have  been  started  in  the  hotbed  or  greenhouse; 
(3)  for  wintering  hardy  plants  started  in  the  fall;  (4)  for  growing  crops 
such  as  lettuce,  radishes,  beets  and  parsley  to  maturity.  In  many 
sections,  especially  in  the  South,  nearly  all  kinds  of  plants  are  started 
in  cold  frames  but  they  are  not  as  satisfactory  as  hotbeds  for  most  crops, 
where  earliness  is  an  important  factor.  If  only  a  little  protection  is 
necessary,  cold  frames  are  satisfactory  for  starting  plants.  In  the  vicinity 
of  Norfolk,  Va.,  and  elsewhere  in  the  South,  some  crops  such  as  cucumbers, 
melons  and  beets  are  started  in  cold  frames  and  when  weather  conditions 
permit  the  frames  are  removed  and  the  crops  receive  field  culture.  In  this 
case  the  crops  are  planted  in  rows  about  the  same  as  for  general  field 
culture.  In  the  North  cold  frames  are  used  mainly  for  hardening  off 
plants  which  have  been  started  in  hotbeds  and  greenhouses. 


HOTBEDS  AND  COLD  FRAMES 


63 


Cold  frames  are  constructed  in  very  much  the  same  way  as  hotbeds 
except  that  no  pit  is  required.  In  fact  the  main  difference  between  a 
hotbed  and  a  cold  frame  is  the  absence  of  any  form  of  heat  in  the  latter, 
except  that  provided  by  the  sun.  Permanent  cold  frames  are  commonly 
made  of  concrete,  Fig.   1,  while  temporary  ones  are  made  of  boards. 

Cold  frames  are  covered  with  glass  sash,  canvas  or  cloth.  In  the 
North  glass  is  mostly  used,  while  in  the  South  canvas  or  cloth  is  commonly 
used.  Where  sash  is  used  the  frames  are  as  a  rule  6  feet  wide,  although 
frames  12  feet  wide  are  not  uncommon.  When  cloth  is  used  the  beds 
are  verv  often  12  feet  wide. 


Fig.  1. — A  good  type  of  permanent  cold  frame. 


In  North  Carohna  and  in  other  sections  of  the  South,  where  cloth- 
covered  frames  are  used  for  growing  lettuce  and  other  crops  to  maturity 
the  sides  and  ends  of  the  beds  are  made  of  1  by  12-inch  boards.  The 
beds  are  12  to  14  feet  wide  and  of  any  length  desired,  sometimes  as  much 
as  100  yards.  The  boards  are  held  in  place  by  stakes  driven  into  the 
ground.  Stakes  for  supporting  the  cross  strips  are  driven  in  the  center 
of  the  bed  about  4  feet  apart  making  a  row  the  length  of  the  bed.  These 
stakes  extend  above  the  surface  of  the  ground  about  18  inches  so  that 
when  the  cross  strips  are  nailed  to  them  and  to  the  sides  of  the  frame 
there  is  a  fall  of  about  6  inches  from  the  center  to  the  sides.  Unbleached 
muslin  is  used  for  covering  these  frames.  Most  of  these  frames  are 
removed  each  year  and  the  land  plowed  and  harrowed  before  setting 
up  the  frames  for  the  next  crop. 

Plant  Forcers. — There  are  various  kinds  of  plant  forcers  for  individual 
hills  or  individual  plants  in  use  to  some  extent  in  this  country,  but  this 
method  of  forcing  plants  has  not  met  favor  here  as  it  has  in  Europe. 


64  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

One  of  the  types  used  in  this  country  is  a  square  box  with  a  sloping  top 
covered  with  a  pane  of  glass.  One  of  these  boxes  is  set  over  a  hill  of 
melons,  cucumbers  or  other  plants  in  the  field.  The  box  protects  the 
plants  against  chilling  winds  and  the  glass  allows  the  sun  to  heat  the  soil. 
After  the  plants  are  well  established  the  box  is  removed.  Most  gardeners 
prefer  to  start  plants  in  greenhouses  and  hotbeds  and  keep  them  there  until 
the  weather  is  warm  enough  to  set  them  in  the  field  without  danger  of 
frost  injury.  By  the  use  of  paper  pots,  paper  bands,  veneer  bands, 
flower  pots,  etc.,  practically  any  kind  of  crop  can  be  started  indoors  and 
transplanted  safely  to  the  garden  later. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
GROWING  PLANTS  FOR  TRANSPLANTING 

Certain  crops  are  practically  always  started  in  a  seed  bed  and  the 
plants  later  transplanted  to  the  field.  Among  the  vegetables  started 
in  this  way  are  cabbage,  cauliflower,  broccoli,  Brussels  sprouts,  celery, 
eggplant,  peppers,  tomatoes  and  sweet  potatoes.  All  of  the  crops  men- 
tioned and  many  others,  such  as  lettuce,  melons,  cucumbers,  beets, 
onions,  lima  beans,  and  sweet  corn  are  sometimes  planted  in  hotbeds  or 
greenhouses  in  order  to  hasten  maturity. 

Advantages  of  Starting  Plants  in  Greenhouses,  Hotbeds  and  Cold 
Frames. — There  are  many  advantages  in  starting  plants  in  greenhouses  or 
other  forcing  structures,  the  most  important  being:  (1)  Production  of  an 
earlier  crop  thereby  getting  advantage  of  the  early  market;  (2)  increasing 
the  length  of  the  growing  season  by  planting  seed  several  weeks  before 
weather  would  permit  of  outdoor  planting;  (3)  making  it  possible  to 
grow  long  season,  tender  crops  such  as  tomatoes,  peppers,  eggplant, 
melons  and  lima  beans  in  regions  having  a  relatively  short  growing  season; 
(4)  enabling  gardeners  to  produce  more  crops  on  same  land;  (5)  protecting 
young  plants  from  unfavorable  conditions,  and  disease  and  insect  injury; 
(6)  securing  larger  yields  of  many  crops,  especially  the  tender,  long 
season  plants,  such  as  tomatoes,  eggplant,  peppers,  melons,  cucumbers 
and  lima  beans,  which  continue  to  bear  in  the  North,  until  killed 
by  frost. 

Sowing  Seed. — Moisture,  oxygen  and  a  congenial  temperature  are 
requisites  of  germination.  In  greenhouses  and  hotbeds  moisture  and  a 
congenial  temperature  are  artificially  provided,  but  to  maintain 
the  proper  moisture  the  soil  must  be  of  good  texture.  The  soil  for  the 
seed  bed  should  be  light  and  friable  but  not  so  light  that  it  dries  out 
quickly.  A  heavy  soil,  or  one  containing  considerable  clay,  is  not  satis- 
factory because  when  the  surface  becomes  dry  it  gets  hard  and  cracks, 
and  if  kept  wet  it  puddles  and  these  conditions  are  not  favorable  for  good 
germination  and  growth.  A  sandy  loam  soil  is  most  generally  used  for 
seed  beds,  but  muck  is  considered  almost  ideal  for  celery,  lettuce  and 
some  other  crops. 

The  time  for  sowing  seeds  in  greenhouses,  hotbeds  or  cold  frames 

depends  upon  the  kind  of  crop  and  subsequent  treatment  it  is  to  receive 

before  the  plants  are  to  be  set  in  the  field.     If  they  are  to  be  set  directly 

from  the  seed  bed  less  time  is  given  than  when  they  are  to  be  transplanted 

5  65 


66  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

once  or  twice.  In  general  the  length  of  time  between  seed  sowing  and 
setting  the  plants  in  the  field  varies  from  three  to  four  weeks  to  three 
months.  There  is  danger  of  the  plants  going  to  seed  prematurely  if  they 
are  started  too  early.  This  often  occurs  with  celery  and  cabbage.  The 
requirements  with  reference  to  the  various  crops,  handled  in  different 
ways,  are  given  under  the  discussion  of  the  individual  vegetables. 

Small  seeds  are  sometimes  sown  broadcast  and  covered  very  lightly 
with  fine  soil  or  merely  covered  with  a  piece  of  cloth  or  burlap.  The 
latter  method  is  often  used  in  starting  celery  plants.  Seeds  of  cabbage, 
cauliflower,  tomato,  eggplant,  etc.,  are  commonly  sown  in  rows.  When 
flats  are  used  the  rows  are  usually  about  2  inches  apart,  but  when  sown 
in  the  soil  of  the  greenhouses  bench,  or  hotbed  more  distance  is  given, 
from  3  to  6  inches  being  common.  The  wider  spacing  of  the  rows  is 
given  when  the  plants  are  not  to  be  "pricked  out." 

The  depth  of  sowing  depends  to  a  considerable  extent  on  the  size  of 
the  seed  and  the  kind  of  soil.  Very  small  seeds  should  be  covered  very 
lightly  if  at  all.  Cabbage  seeds  and  others  of  similar  size  are  usually 
planted  about  }i  inch  deep  while  beet  seeds  are  planted  to  a  depth  of  3^ 
inch  or  more.  On  very  light  soil  seeds  maj^  be  planted  deeper  than  on 
heavy  soils. 

Care  of  the  Seed  Bed. — Very  close  attention  must  be  given  the  seed 
bed  if  good  results  are  to  be  secured.  Only  by  experience  can  one  learn 
just  how  to  care  for  the  seed  bed  under  the  artificial  conditions  which 
prevail  in  greenhouses,  hotbeds  and  cold  frames.  The  gardener  wants 
good  stocky  plants  ready  at  the  required  season  and  to  have  them  great 
care  must  be  given  to  the  temperature,  moisture,  ventilation,  trans- 
planting and  "hardening  off."  Things  to  avoid  are:  (1)  Chilling  the 
plants;  (2)  overheating  and  lack  of  ventilation  which  make  the  plants 
soft;  (3)  overwatering,  which  makes  the  plants  soft  and  \evy  susceptible 
to  "damping  off;"  and  (4)  wilting  of  plants  due  to  too  much  heat  or  too 
little  water. 

Watering. — Caution  should  be  exercised  in  watering  the  seed  bed. 
Before  the  seedlings  come  through  the  surface  there  is  danger  of  washing 
out  the  seed  and  puddling  the  soil.  At  this  time  the  seed  bed  should  be 
watered  with  a  fine  spray  from  a  sprinkling  can  or  with  a  fine  rose  on  a 
garden  hose.  Water  dashed  on  the  seed  bed  through  an  ordinary  hose 
nozzle  or  through  a  rose  with  large  holes  is  likely  to  wash  out  the  seed. 
The  seed  bed  should  never  be  allowed  to  dry  out,  nor  should  it  be  kept 
soaked.  Until  the  plants  are  well  established  the  soil  should  be  kept 
fairly  moist  but  not  wet.  After  the  plants  are  well  established  the  water- 
ing should  be  done  thoroughly  but  not  too  often.  There  is  usually  more 
danger  of  over-watering  than  under-watering.  Keeping  the  surface  wet 
after  the  plants  are  up  is  favorable  to  "damping  off"  hence  it  is  best  not 
to  water  often  but  to  soak  the  soil  thoroughly  and  then  withhold  water 


GROWING  PLANTS  FOR  TRANSPLANTING  67 

until  the  plants  show  the  need  of  it.  Of  course  more  water  is  required  on 
a  bright  day  than  on  a  cloudy  or  rainy  day  because  of  greater  evaporation 
and  transpiration  under  the  former.  In  fact  plants  should  not  be  watered 
on  cloudy  days  unless  absolutely  necessary.  Watering  should  be  done 
early  enough  in  the  day  to  allow  the  foliage  of  the  plants  to  dry  off  before 
night.  It  is  best  to  do  the  watering  in  the  morning,  for  if  done  during  the 
middle  of  the  day  there  is  some  danger  of  sunscald  and  if  done  late  in 
the  afternoon  the  plants  may  not  dry  off  before  night.  Watering  reduces 
the  temperature  in  the  hotbed  and  for  this  reason  it  should  be  done  early 
enough  to  allow  the  bed  to  get  warm  before  the  sun  goes  down.  Before 
the  plants  are  to  be  taken  up  to  set  in  the  field  the  plant  bed  should  be 
thoroughly  soaked  so  as  to  have  as  much  soil  as  possible  adhere  to  the 
roots. 

Controlling  Temperature. — In  greenhouses  and  in  steam  or  hot- 
water-heated  hotbeds  the  temperature  is  controlled  by  turning  on  and 
turning  off  the  heat  in  some  or  all  of  the  pipes  and  by  regulating  the 
ventilation.  During  bright  days  in  spring  it  is  often  necessary  to  turn 
off  all  of  the  heat  and  ventilate  thoroughly  to  keep  the  temperature 
down.  The  temperature  that  should  be  maintained  depends  upon  the 
kind  of  crop.  Tomatoes,  peppers,  eggplants,  cucumbers  and  melons 
thrive  best  in  a  relatively  high  temperature  while  cabbage,  cauliflower, 
lettuce,  celery,  onions  and  beets  do  best  in  a  relatively  low  temperature. 
Slow,  steady  growth  is  preferable,  therefore  the  temperature  should  not 
be  high  enough  to  make  rapid,  succulent  growth  nor  low  enough  to  check 
growth  until  time  for  hardening  the  plants. 

Ventilation  of  greenhouses  and  frames  where  young  plants  are 
growing  needs  careful  attention.  Ventilation  dries  the  air  and  aids  in  the 
control  of  the  temperature.  In  greenhouses  ventilation  is  secured  by 
opening  the  ventilators,  while  in  frames  the  sashes  are  raised  at  one  end  or 
pulled  down  a  short  distance.  The  tendency  is  to  ventilate  too  little 
rather  than  too  much.  As  plants  grow,  more  and  more  ventilation  should 
be  given  until  finally  on  bright  warm  days  the  sash  may  be  removed. 
In  ventilating  during  cold  weather  the  wind  should  not  be  allowed  to 
strike  the  plants.  In  greenhouses  this  is  obviated  by  opening  the  venti- 
lators on  the  side  of  the  house  opposite  the  direction  of  the  wind.  In 
frames  the  wind  is  prevented  from  striking  the  plants  by  raising  the  end 
of  the  sash  on  the  side  of  the  frame  opposite  the  direction  of  the  wind. 

Transplanting.— Plants  started  in  the  greenhouse,  or  hotbed  are 
usually  transplanted  once,  and  sometimes  twice  or  three  times  prior  to 
setting  them  in  the  field  or  garden.  The  main  advantage  of  transplant- 
ing is  economy  of  space  in  the  greenhouse,  or  hotbed,  although  many 
other  advantages  are  claimed  for  the  practice.  Many  gardeners  and 
other  authorities  believe  that  transplanting  develops  a  more  stocky 
plant,  with  a  better  root  system  and  thereby  increases  the  yield  and 


68  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

hastens  maturity.  The  evidence  on  this  point  indicates  that  transplant- 
ing, in  itself,  does  not  increase  the  yield  nor  hasten  maturity,  but  that  the 
increase  in  space  given  the  transplanted  plants  does  have  this  effect.  In 
many  of  the  experiments  in  transplanting  the  space  factor  was  not  elimi- 
nated, and  other  factors  also  were  involved.  However,  some  investi- 
gators eliminated  all  of  the  factors  except  the  one  under  investigation. 
Cranefield  (32)  in  Wisconsin  worked  with  cabbage,  cauliflower,  lettuce, 
collards,  kale  and  tomatoes.  Lettuce  seed  of  the  Grand  Rapids 
variety  was  planted  6  inches  apart  in  a  greenhouse  bench  with  4  inches  of 
soil  on  January  15.  When  the  plants  attained  suitable  size  one-half  of 
them  were  taken  up  and  reset  in  the  same  places  in  the  usual  manner  of 
transplanting.  On  March  23  the  entire  crop  was  harvested  and  weighed 
and  the  weights  were  as  follows: 

30  plants  not  transplanted  weiglicd  1,274.5  grams. 
30  plants  transplanted  weighed  1,093.5  grains. 

These  figures  show  an  advantage  of  16%  per  cent,  in  favor  of  the 
plants  not  transplanted. 

Cabbage  plants  not  transplanted,  once  transplanted  and  twice  trans- 
planted gave  results  similar  to  the  lettuce.  The  weights  of  the  plants 
three  months  after  sowing  the  seed  were  as  follows. 

8  plants  not  transplanted  4,214.0  grams. 
8  plants  once  transplanted  2,993.5  grams. 
8  plants  twice  transplanted  2,241.7  grams. 

The  following  year  Cranefield  carried  on  the  work  in  the  field,  using 
cauliflower,  two  varieties  of  cabbage,  kale  and  collards.  The  seeds  were 
sown  thickly  in  the  row  in  the  open  on  May  27  and  after  the  plants 
appeared  they  were  thinned,  by  cutting  off  at  the  surface  of  the  ground, 
to  3  feet  apart  in  the  rows.  On  June  23  alternate  plants  were  taken  up 
with  a  pointed  stick  and  reset  in  the  same  places.  The  yields  were 
as  follows: 

Cauliflower: 

18  heads  transplanted  weighed  58.9  pounds. 

18  heads  not  transplanted  weighed  68.0  pounds. 
Cabbage,  All  Seasons: 

19  trimmed  heads  transplanted,  119.3  pounds. 

19  trimmed  heads  not  transplanted,  132.6  pounds. 

Flat  Dutch  cabbage.  Dwarf  Curled  Kale  and  Georgia  collards  gave 
similar  results,  but  the  number  of  plants  used  was  too  few  to  give  reliable 
results. 

Cranefield  grew  three  crops  of  tomatoes  by  sowing  seed  in  6-inch 
flower  pots.  When  the  plants  were  about  2  inches  high  two-thirds 
of  the  whole  number  were  dug  up  and  reset  in  the  same  pots;  later  one- 


GROWING  PLANTS  FOR  TRANSPLANTING  69 

half  of  these  were  again  transplanted  in  a  similar  manner.  As  soon 
as  the  weather  permitted  10  plants  from  each  lot  were  set  4  by  8  feet 
apart  in  the  open  ground.  The  total  yields,  from  these  plants,  for 
the  3  years  were  as  follows: 

Pounds 

Not  transplanted  1 ,  174 . 8 

Once  transplanted 1,131.2 

Twice  transplanted 1 ,  001 . 2 

In  order  to  judge  earliness  the  picking  season  was  divided  into  three 
p3riods.  The  yields  during  the  first  period  (first  third  of  the  picking 
season)  were  105.2  pounds  on  the  plants  not  transplanted,  109.7  pounds 
on  the  once  transplanted  plants  and  88.1  on  the  twice  transplanted 
plants. 

More  recent  results  by  Boyle  (15)  in  Indiana  may  be  of  interest  in 
this  connection,  although  the  differences  in  yield  may  be  due  to  the 
space  factor  rather  than  to  the  effects  of  transplanting.  For  a  discussion 
of  this  work  see  Chapter  XXV. 

From  the  results  of  various  experiments  it  is  evident  that  trans- 
planting checks  growth,  and  that  this  check  is  in  proportion  to  the  size 
of  the  plant  at  the  time  it  is  transplanted.  The  smaller  the  plant  the 
less  check  there  is  to  growth  and  the  more  quickly  the  plant  overcomes 
the  check.  This  probably  accounts  for  the  greatly  reduced  yield  on 
plants  twice  transplanted.  Taking  up  plants  for  transplanting  results 
in  breaking  some  of  the  roots,  especially  tap-roots  and  this  results 
in  the  development  of  many  new  roots.  Since  these  new  roots  do  not 
attain  the  length  of  those  on  similar  plants  not  disturbed  a  larger  propor- 
tion of  the  feeding  roots  of  the  plants  previously  transplanted  remain 
intact  when  the  plants  are  removed  to  the  field.  The  feeding  area  of 
plants  that  have  been  transplanted  may  be  less  than  that  for  plants  not 
transplanted,  but  when  the  latter  are  taken  up  to  plant  in  the  field  the 
long  roots  are  broken  of!",  and  because  of  this  a  much  smaller  root  system 
may  be  carried  with  the  plant  to  the  field  than  is  the  case  with  plants 
that  have  been  transplanted.  When  plants  are  grown  in  pots  or  plant 
bands  practically  all  of  the  roots  remain  in  the  ball  or  block  of  soil  when 
the  plants  are  set  in  the  field.  This  probably  accounts  for  the  increased 
yields  from  plants  grown  in  these  receptacles  over  similar  plants  grown  in 
flats  or  in  the  soil  of  hotbeds  and  greenhouses. 

When  plants  are  merely  shifted  from  a  small  receptacle  to  a  larger 
one  there  is  no  breaking  of  the  roots  and  hence  no  material  check  in 
growth  results,  even  to  large  plants.  This  is  not  at  all  comparable  to 
taking  up  the  plants  from  a  seed  bed,  or  even  taking  them  from  flats 
in  which  they  have  been  transplanted. 

It  is  well-known  that  some  plants  withstand  the  shock  of  transplanting 
much  better  than  others,  but  the  reasons  for  the  differences  are  not 


70 


VEGETABLE  CROPS 


known.  It  may  be  due  to  the  difference  in  the  character  of  the  root, 
especially  the  degree  of  branching,  the  proportion  of  actual  root  area, 
the  degree  and  rate  of  endodermal  snbcrization  or  cutinization,  and  the 
rate  of  root  formation.  It  may  be  due  to  difference  in  the  above-ground 
portion  of  the  plant,  such  as  size  of  leaves,  changes  in  the  protoplasm 
which  enables  some  plants  more  than  others  to  retain  water  against  dry- 
ing.    All  of  the  factors  mentioned,  and  others,  may  be  involved. 

Seedlings  are  planted  in  flats,  or  directly  to  the  soil  of  the  greenhouse 
or  frames.     Flats  are  becoming  more  popular  each  year  because  of  the 


Fig.  2. — Spotting  boards  used  in  ma 


following  advantages:  (1)  The  work  can  be  done  indoors;  (2)  the  trans- 
planting in  flats  on  a  table  is  easier  than  bending  over  a  hotbed;  (3) 
the  plants  in  each  flat  are  definite  in  number,  which  is  a  great  advant- 
age in  making  sales;  (4)  the  flats  can  be  hauled  directly  to  field  and 
distributed;  (5)  the  plants  can  be  taken  up  with  a  large  amount  of  soil 
adhering  to  the  roots;  (6)  the  plants  are  less  Ukely  to  dry  out  before 
being  set  in  the  field  because  the  roots  are  not  disturbed  until  the  plant 
is  to  be  set. 

Seedling  plants  are  usually  transplanted  or  "pricked  out"  w'hen  the 
true  leaves  appear,  or  when  they  reach  the  height  of  13^^  to  2  inches.  The 
soil  for  transplanting  should  be  loose  and  friable  and  a  little  richer  than 
that  used  in  the  seed  bed.  When  flats  are  used  about  ^  inch  of  sods  or 
partly  rotted  manure  is  usually  placed  in  the  bottom  to  insure  drainage. 
The  flat  is  then  filled  with  soil,  which  is  firmed  a  little  in  the  corners  and 
along  the  sides.  A  leveling  strip  is  used  to  remove  the  surplus  soil  and  to 
leave  the  surface  smooth.  Holes  for  the  plants  may  be  made  with  the 
finger,  with  a  small  dibble,  or  with  a  spotting  board.  Fig.  2.  The 
use  of  a  spotting  board  is  desirable  in  order  to  get  the  plants  evenly 
spaced  and  to  save  time. 


GROWING  PLANTS  FOR  TRANSPLANTING  71 

Seedlings  are  spaced  1  to  2  inches  apart  each  way  depending  upon 
the  size  of  the  plants  and  the  length  of  time  they  are  to  remain  in  the 
box  or  bed.  Sometimes  plants  are  transplanted  twice  before  being 
set  in  the  field.  As  soon  as  they  begin  to  crowd  after  the  first  transplant- 
ing they  are  taken  up  and  transplanted  again,  spacing  them  farther  apart. 
If  the  plants  have  been  planted  2  by  2  inches  the  first  time  they  may  be 
spaced  3  by  3  or  4  by  4  inches  at  the  second  transplanting.  Tomatoes 
and  some  other  plants  are  often  put  in  paper  bands,  veneer  bands, 
flower  pots,  tin  cans  or  other  containers  at  the  second  transplanting, 
one  plant  to  each  receptacle.  The  main  advantage  in  using  pots,  or  dirt 
bands  is  that  the  roots  are  not  disturbed  when  the  plant  is  set  in  the  field 
as  all  of  the  soil  around  the  roots  remains  intact.  In  transplanting  the 
soil  should  be  pressed  down  around  the  roots,  taking  care  to  see  that  the 
hole  is  closed  at  the  bottom.  Young,  succulent  plants  are  sometimes 
injured  by  pressing  against  the  stems  with  the  fingers  in  transplanting. 
The  pressure  should  be  exerted  downward  rather  than  against  the  plant. 
After  each  transplanting  the  plants  should  be  watered  thoroughly  to 
settle  the  soil  round  the  roots.  It  is  an  advantage  to  shade  the  plants 
until  they  become  established.  Bright  warm  sunshine  is  likely  to  cause 
wilting  since  the  roots  cannot  take  up  moisture  as  fast  as  it  is  transpired 
from  the  leaves. 

Seeds  of  cucumbers,  melons,  lima  beans  and  sweet  corn  are  sometimes 
planted  in  pots,  or  plant  bands  a  few  weeks  before  time  for  setting  in  the 
open.  Several  seeds  are  planted  in  each  receptacle  and  the  young  plants 
thinned  to  the  desired  number  either  before  or  after  planting  in  the  field. 
In  planting  in  the  field  all  of  the  soil  is  kept  around  the  roots  so  as  to  check 
the  growth  of  the  plant  as  little  as  possible. 

Hardening  Plants. — The  term  hardening  or  ''hardening  off "  is  usually 
thought  of  in  connection  with  the  processes  which  make  plants  less  sus- 
ceptible to  frost  injury,  but  it  also  might  be  used  with  reference  to  any 
firming  of  the  tissues  which  enables  plants  better  to  withstand  other 
unfavorable  conditions  such  as  hot  sunshine  and  drying  winds.  All 
experienced  gardeners  know  that  soft,  tender  plants  are  injured  by  unfav- 
orable soil  and  weather  conditions  and  effort  is  made  to  prevent  this  by 
subjecting  them  gradually  to  the  conditions  less  favorable  to  rapid  growth. 

Among  the  methods  used  to  "harden  off"  plants  are:  (1)  Exposing 
them  to  relatively  low  temperatures  for  a  week  or  more ;  (2)  withholding 
water;  (3)  checking  growth  by  allowing  the  plants  to  become  root-bound; 
(4)  growing  plants  in  poor  soil.  Rosa  (127)  has  shown  that  watering 
plants  with  M/10  solutions  of  potassium  chloride  and  sodium  chloride 
also  results  in  hardening.  Exposing  plants  to  relatively  low  tempera- 
tures is  the  most  common  method  employed  and  this  is  done  by  reducing 
the  heat  and  ventilating  the  greenhouses  and  hotbeds  or  by  removing 
the  plants  to  cold  frames.     Plants  are  hardened  gradually  to  prevent  a 


72  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

severe  check  to  growth  or  possible  kilhng  of  the  tissues.  Anything  which 
checks  growth  increases  hardiness  to  some  extent,  but  subjecting  plants 
to  low  temperature  seems  to  give  the  best  results  in  general  practice, 
although  this  is  usually  accompanied  by  withholding  water. 

How  Does  Freezing  Injure  or  Kill  Plants? — The  mechanism  of 
frost  injury  has  been  studied  by  man}^  plant  physiologists  and  many  theo- 
ries as  to  the  cause  or  causes  have  been  advanced.  Frost  injury  has  been 
ascribed  to:  (1)  Rupture  of  the  cells  by  growing  ice  crystals;  (2)  mechan- 
ical effect  of  ice  formation  on  the  plasma  membrane;  (3)  withdrawal  of 
water  from  the  plasma  membrane;  (4)  dessication  or  direct  water  loss; 
(5)  the  precipitation  of  proteins  through  "salting  out"  and  (6)  precipita- 
tion of  proteins  by  increase  in  acidity. 

Results  secured  by  numerous  investigators  show  quite  clearly  that 
cell-rupture  cannot  be  the  cause  of  death  of  plants  by  cold.  Loss  of 
water  from  the  cells  by  ice  formation  in  the  intercellular  spaces  invariably 
accompanies  the  killing  of  plants  by  cold.  It  has  been  shown  that  plant 
tissues  can  withstand  temperatures  several  degrees  below  the  freezing 
point  without  injury  if  ice  formation  does  not  take  place.  Thus  Wright 
and  Taylor  (187)  have  shown  that  potatoes  can  be  cooled  several  degrees 
below  their  freezing  point  and  warmed  up  again  without  injury  provided 
ice  formation  does  not  take  place. 

Harvey  (70)  after  studying  the  work  of  others  and  conducting  elabo- 
rate experiments  himself,  expresses  the  belief  that  "all  the  factors  men- 
tioned play  an  important  part,  but  in  addition  there  appears  to  be  another 
important  factor — the  change  of  the  actual  acidity  or  hydrogen-ion  con- 
centration of  the  plant  juice  on  freezing.  It  seems  that  this  factor  sup- 
plies the  deficiencies  of  the  other  factors  in  explaining  frost  injury." 

Effects  of  Hardening  on  Frost  Injury. — The  hardening  process 
in  plants  is  accompanied  by  certain  easily  observed  changes  such  as 
changes  in  the  color  of  the  leaf  and  stem  and  in  the  texture  of  leaf ;  hard- 
ening of  the  stem;  slowing  of  the  growth  rate  and  on  the  leaves  of  cab- 
bage increase  in  the  amount  of  bloom.  Tomato  leaves  of  hardened  plants 
are  paler  than  leaves  of  non-hardened  plants  of  the  same  age.  The  under- 
side of  the  leaves  often  turns  slightly  purple.  Cabbage  leaves  turn  pale 
green  and  show  pink  or  purple  color  on  hardening. 

There  are  many  theories  on  the  relation  of  hardening  to  frost  injury. 
The  thickening  of  the  waxy  covering  or  bloom  on  the  surface  of  the  leaves 
of  cabbage  and  other  plants  which  have  been  hardened  is  given  as  one 
of  the  reasons  that  hardened  plants  can  withstand  lower  temperatures 
than  non-hardened  plants.     Harvey  (70)  states  that: 

The  undercooling  of  the  cell  solution  is  a  factor  of  great  importance  in  the 
}ff^i^ lance  of  cabbage  to  freezing.  Those  plants  which  have  the  most  bloom  on 
the  leaf  surface  are  most  resistant  to  the  formation  of  ice  within  the  tissue. 


GROWING  PLANTS  FOR  TRANSPLANTING  73 

Cabbages  which  are  well  covered  with  wax  show  no  indications  of  freezing  after 
several  hours  exposure  to  a  temperature  5  degrees  below  that  at  which  ordinary 
plants  show  ice  formation. 

In  plants  which  have  but  little  waxy  covering  greater  amounts  of  moisture 
stick  to  the  leaves  than  in  those  having  a  heavy  covering  or  bloom.  The  moisture 
freezing  on  the  surface  inoculates  the  undercooled  solution  within  the  leaf. 
When  once  begun,  the  freezing  process  is  transmitted  rapidly  through  the  leaf 
tissue. 

Some  investigators  claim  that  the  freezing  point  of  the  cell  sap  is 
lower  in  hardened  than  in  non-hardened  plants  and  give  this  as  one  of 
the  reasons  why  the  former  can  withstand  lower  temperatures  better 
than  the  latter.  Others  believe  that  the  increase  in  sugars  during  the 
hardening  process  is  one  of  the  causes  of  reduced  injury  of  hardened 
plants,  ascribing  to  sugars  an  important  role  in  the  prevention  of  protein 
precipitation.  Rosa  (127)  shows  that  in  tomatoes  the  increase  in 
sugars  in  hardened  plants  is  relatively  slight,  while  the  accumulation  of 
starch  is  much  larger  than  in  cabbage  or  lettuce. 

The  lessened  injury  from  freezing  after  plants  have  been  hardened 
has  been  ascribed  by  several  workers  to  changes  in  the  proteins,  a 
breaking  down  of  the  complex  forms  to  simpler  forms  which  are  not 
so  easily  precipitated.  On  this  point  Harvey,  in  summarizing  his  investi- 
gations, gives  the  following  conclusions  or  summary: 

The  principal  effect  of  the  hardening  process  for  cabbages  is  a  change  in  the 
constituents  of  the  protoplasm  which  prevent  their  precipitation  as  a  result  of  the 
physical  changes  incident  upon  freezing.  The  proteins  are  changed  to  forms 
which  are  less  easily  precipitated.  This  is  indicated  by  an  increase  in  the  amino- 
acid  content  of  the  cabbage  plants  on  hardening. 

The  factors  which  produce  protein  precipitation  on  the  freezing  of  a  plant 
juice  are  held  to  be  principally  the  increase  in  the  hydrogen-ion  concentration, 
and  the  increase  in  the  concentration  of  the  salts.  The  latter  factor  is  held  to  be 
insufficient  to  cause  precipitation  except  under  the  conditions  of  changed  acidity. 
Cabbage  plants  were  found  to  become  resistant  to  a  half-hours'  freezing  at  —3 
degrees  C.  after  exposure  to  -)-3  degrees  for  5  days.  During  this  time  the  carbo- 
hydrate changes  were  slight.  Hence  the  prevention  of  protein  precipitation  by 
sugar  accumulation  during  hardening  is  not  sufficient  to  account  for  the  resistance 
of  hardened  plants  to  freezing. 

The  proteins  of  the  midrib  of  cabbage  leaves  are  precipitated  more  readily 
than  those  from  the  rest  of  the  leaf.  This  is  considered  to  be  due  to  physiological 
differences  between  vascular  tissues  and  the  other  tissues  of  the  leaf. 

In  juices  of  non-hardened  and  hardened  cabbages  the  proteins  of  the  former 
were  found  to  be  precipitated  to  a  greater  degree  by  freezing  than  those  of  the 
latter.  The  percentage  of  precipitation  for  such  juices  on  freezing  is  closely 
paralleled  by  the  relative  precipitation  on  the  addition  of  acid. 

The  greatest  changes  induced  by  freezing  are  supposed  to  occur  in  the  outer 
portions  of  the  protoplast  since  this  is  most  exposed  on  plasmolysis. 


74  VEGETABLE  CHOI'S 

The  effects  of  dossication,  freezing  and  ])la.snioly!sis  arc  considered  to  be 
similar,  in  that  all  these  processes  cause  changes  in  the  hydrogen-ion  and  salt 
concentrations. 

Rosa  (127)  presents  data  which  show  that  the  hardening  process  in 
plants  is  accompanied  by  a  marked  increase  in  water-retaining  power. 
He  believes  that  this  is  due  chiefly  to  the  imbibitional  forces  of  the  cell. 
He  summarizes  the  results  of  his  studies  as  follows : 

Any  treatment  materially  checking  the  growth  of  plants  increases  cold-resis- 
tance. In  cabbage  and  related  plants,  hardiness  increases  in  proportion  as  growth 
is  checked.  In  tomato  and  other  tender  species,  the  checking  treatments 
resulted  in  relatively  slight  increase  to  cold-resistance.  The  various  means  of 
hardening  plants  in  these  experiments  have  resulted  in  about  the  same  type  of 
changes  within  the  plant. 

Cabbage  plants  hardened  by  various  treatments  contain  a  larger  amount 
of  "unfree,"  or  not  easily  frozen,  water,  as  measured  by  the  dilatometer.  The 
increment  in  unfree  water  corresponds  to  the  extent  to  which  growth  is  checked, 
both  of  these  paralleling  the  degree  of  cold  resistance. 

The  amount  of  water  frozen  at  different  temperatures  in  leaves  of  varjdng 
hardiness  was  measured.  The  percentage  of  moisture  frozen  in  hardened  cabbage 
leaves  at  —3  degrees  C.  and  at  —4  degrees  C.  is  about  two-thirds  of  that  frozen 
in  tender  cabbage  leaves  at  the  same  temperature.  The  actual  amount  of  water 
remaining  unfrozen  at  a  given  temperature  is  greater  in  hardened  than  in  tender 
leaves,  although  their  total  moisture  content  is  less. 

The  percentage  of  total  moisture  frozen  in  leaves  increases  for  each  successive 
degree  of  temperature  lowering,  but  the  increase  becomes  rapidly  smaller  and 
smaller.  The  amount  of  water  remaining  unfrozen  in  hardened  cabbage  leaves 
is  approximately  a  logarithmic  function  of  the  temperature. 

Cabbage  plants  exposed  to  low  temperatures  in  a  coldframe  for  varying  periods 
have  a  progressively  smaller  amount  of  water  f  reezable  at  —  5  degrees  C,  the  longer 
they  are  exposed  to  hardening.  The  percentage  of  freezable  water  decreased 
quite  rapidly  in  the  first  four  days  after  removal  from  the  greenhouse,  more  slowly 
from  four  to  fourteen  days  and  very  slowly  thereafter.  The  rate  of  decrease  in 
percentage  of  freezable  water  coincides  with  the  observed  rate  of  hardening.  In 
other  words,  the  hardening  process  in  cabbage  plants  was  accompanied  by  a  pro- 
portional increase  in  the  amount  of  water  unfrozen  at  —  5  degrees  C.  The  amount 
of  water  frozen  at  —5  degrees  C.  is  somewhat  less  in  plants  exposed  to  sHght 
wilting  at  midday. 

The  effects  of  watering  plants  with  M/10  salt  solutions  are  associated 
with  a  condition  of  mild  physiological  drought.  The  degree  of  such  drought 
is  proportional  to  the  concentration  of  the  soil  solution,  which  in  turn  is 
influenced  by  (a)  the  amount  of  water-soluble  material  present  and  (b)  the  power 
of  the  soil  to  hold  a  large  part  of  the  soil  moisture  unfree  in  the  pure  or  nearly 
pure  state. 

Hardened  cabbage  i)lants  lose  less  moisture  by  transpiration  per  unit  of  leaf 
area  than  tender  plants,  under  the  same  conditions.  The  amount  of  water  lost 
by  transpiration  per  plant  for  a  given  period  is  much  less  in  hardened  cabbage 


GROWING  PLANTS  FOR  TRANSPLANTING  75 

plants  than  in  non-hardened  phints  of  tlie  same  age  because  of  (a)  the  lower  rate 
of  transpiration  and  (6)  the  smaller  size  of  hardened  plants.  This  accounts  for 
the  fact  that  hardened  plants  can  be  transplanted  to  the  field  with  less  wilting. 

The  rate  of  water  loss  from  hardened  cabbage  leaves  dried  in  an  oven  at 
60  degrees  C.  is  much  less  than  that  from  leaves  of  tender  plants.  In  tomato, 
the  rate  of  drying  is  only  slightly  less  in  hardened  than  in  non-hardened  plants. 
Comparing  the  rate  of  water-loss  from  tomato  and  cabbage  leaves,  it  is  found  that 
hardened  tomatoes  lose  water  somewhat  faster  than  tender  cabbage  leaves. 

The  lesser  amount  of  water  lost  by  ice  formation,  the  lower  rate  of  transpira- 
tion and  the  slower  rate  of  water  loss  upon  drying  in  hardened  cabbage  plants, 
may  be  explained  by  the  hypothesis  that  hardening  develops  an  increased  water- 
retaining  capacity.  The  water-retaining  power  of  plant  cells  is  due  to  (a) 
osmotic  concentration,  {b)  imbibition  and  may  be  increased  by  means  of  either  or 
both  of  these  factors. 

Osmotic  concentration  of  plant  cells  may  be  increased  by: 

1.  Decreasing  the  total  water  content. 

2.  Increasing  the  amount  of  osmotically  active  sap  solutes. 

3.  Decreasing  the  amount  of  free  water  or  conversely,  by  increasing  the 
amount  of  unfree  water  held  by  colloidal  adsorption. 

Osmotic  concentration  as  measured  by  the  lowering  of  the  freezing  point  has 
been  found  to  increase  on  hardening  plants,  varying  inversely  with  the  water 
content.  Both  reducing  and  non-reducing  sugars  increase  with  hardening. 
Sugars  are  found  to  increase  more  in  cabbage  and  lettuce  than  in  tomatoes. 
The  increased  sugar  is  not  sufficient  to  account  for  much  difference  in  the  freezing 
point  depression  or  in  the  amount  of  water  remaining  unfrozen  several  degrees 
below  the  freezing  point.  The  chief  factor  in  increasing  osmotic  concentration  in 
plants  is  considered  to  be  the  decrease  in  amount  of  free  water,  hence  the  observed 
increase  in  osmotic  concentration  would  be  a  secondary  result  of  the  hardening 
process. 

The  power  of  imbibition  possessed  by  plant  cells  may  be  increased  by : 

1.  Decreasing  the  total  water  content  (or  increasing  the  per  cent  of  dry 
matter) . 

2.  Increasing  the  amount  of  hydrophilous  colloids  in  the  protoplasm. 

3.  Increasing  the  water-retaining  power  of  such  colloids  by  slight  increase  in 
acidity,  etc. 

Decreased  water  content  accompanies  a  condition  of  greater  cold  resistance 
in  plants.  During  the  hardening  process,  the  percentage  of  dry  matter  increases 
rapidly  for  a  few  days,  and  more  slowly  thereafter.  The  total  pentosan  content  is 
greater  in  hardened  than  in  tender  plants,  regardless  of  the  kind  of  hardening 
treatment.  The  pentosan  content  of  cabbage  plants  exposed  to  low  temperatures 
in  an  open  cold  frame  during  March  increases  rapidly  the  first  five  days  and  more 
slowly  thereafter.  The  pentosan  content  of  cabbage,  kale  and  celery  plants 
growing  in  the  open  garden  increases  as  the  weather  becomes  colder  during  the 
fall.  In  cabbage,  kale  and  lettuce  plants  possessing  potential  hardiness,  the 
fraction  of  the  pentosan  content  soluble  in  hot  water  is  larger  than  in  tomato, 
eggplant  and  sweet  potato,  which  do  not  possess  potential  hardiness.  The  hot 
water-solul)le  pentosan  content  is  thought  to  represent  more  nearly  the  amount  of 


VEGETABLE  CROPS 


pentosans  in  the  protoplasm  and  these  miglit  function  more  specifically  as  water- 
retaining  material.  In  the  group  of  plants  suscei)tible  of  considerable  hardening 
to  cold  the  increase  in  total  pentosan  content  upon  hardening  is  largely  an  increase 

Table  XI. — Effects  of  Various  Methods  of  Hardening   Plants  on  Their 
Ability  to  Resist  Low  Temperatures 

(Adapted  from  Table  2.      .Afo.  Res.  Bull.  48.      1921) 


Plant 

Treatment 

Relative  hardiness  to  cold 

Cabbage 

Optimum  moisture,  greenhouse 

Killed  at  -4  degrees  C.  in  1  hour. 

Medium  moisture,  greenhouse 

Slightly  injured  at  -4  degrees  C.  in  2 
hours.  Uninjured  at  —3  degrees  C. 
in  2  hours. 

Minimum  moisture,  greenhouse 

Not  injured  at  -4  degrees  C.  for 
2^2  hours. 

Greenhouse  plants  not  hardened 

Killed  at  -4  degrees  C.  in  2  hours. 

Plants  hardened  in  cold  frame,  1  week 

Slightly  injured  at    —4  degrees  C.  in 

2],i  hours. 
Slightly  injured  at    -6  degrees  C.  in 

2  hours. 

In  cold  frame,  3  weeks 

Slightly  injured  at  —6  degrees  C.  in 
2  hours. 

Compost  soils  and  tap  water 

Not  injured  at  -3  degrees  C.  in  30 
minutes.  Killed  at  -6  degrees  C. 
in  30  minutes. 

Compost  plus  NaNOs  M/10 

Slightly  injured  at  -6  degrees  C.  in 
30  minutes. 

Tomato 

Optimum  moisture,  greenhouse  plants 

Killed  at  —2  degrees  C.  in  1  hour. 

(leaves  only) 

Medium  moisture,  greenhouse  plants 

Severely  injured  at  —2  degrees  C.  in 

(leaves  only) 

2  hours. 

Minimum  moisture,  greenhouse  plants 

Killed  at   —2  degrees  C.  in  2  hours. 

(leaves  only) 

Greenhouse  plants  not  hardened 

Killed  at  -m  degrees   C.  in  1  hour. 

Hardened  in  cold  frame  for  7  days 

Injured  at  —2  degrees  C.  in  1  hour. 

(leaves  only) 

Hardened    in    cold    frame    21     days 

Uninjured    at     —2    degrees    C.    in    1 

(leaves  only) 

hour. 

Leaf  lettuce 

Optimum  moisture  greenhouse  plants 

Killed  at  -3  degrees  C.  in  11-^2  hours. 

Minimum  moisture  greenhouse  plants 

Uninjured  at    -3  degrees    C.  in   IK' 

hours. 

Minimum   moisture  in   warm   green- 

Killed at  -4  degrees  C.  in  2  hours. 

house. 

Hardened  in  cold  frame  for  2  weeks 

Uninjured  at  —3  degrees  C.  in  SH 
hours. 

Head  lettuce 

Head   lettuce    hardened  in  cold  frame 

Uninjured  at    —4  degrees    C.  for  2],-! 

10  days 

hours. 

Cauliflower 

Greenhouse  plants  not  hardened 

Killed  at  -4  degrees  C.  for  2  hours. 

Cold  frame  hardened 

Uninjured   at    -4   degrees   C.   for    2 
hours. 

in  the  hot  water-soluble  fraction,  while  in  the  tomato  the  hot  water-soluble  frac- 
tion does  not  increase  upon  subjecting  the  plants  to  hardening  treatments. 

It  is  well  known  that  some  plants  such  as  cabbage,  lettuce,  celery 
etc.  can  be  made  to  withstand  a  lower  temperature  than  tomatoes,  egg- 


GROWING  PLANTS  FOR  TRANSPLANTING  77 

plants  and  peppers.  It  is  also  recognized  by  gardeners  that  the  extent  of 
the  hardening  process  determines,  to  a  considerable  degree,  the  amount 
of  cold  a  given  plant  can  stand.  Rosa  experimented  with  different 
methods  of  hardening  including;  (1)  subjecting  plants  to  a  relatively  low 
temperature,  (2)  watering  plants  with  M/10  salt  solutions,  (3)  growing 
under  different  moisture  conditions,  (4)  growing  in  different  kinds  of  soil 
and  a  combination  of  (3)  and  (4). 

Table  XI  shows  the  effects  of  the  different  treatments  on  the  relative 
hardiness  of  plants  to  cold. 

Harvey  (70)  secured  similar  results  with  reference  to  temperatures. 
He  found  that  after  6  days'  exposure  to  3  degrees  C.  cabbage  plants  were 
not  injured  by  30  minutes'  exposure  to  —3  degrees  C.  although  frozen 
stiff.  At  18  degrees  C.  for  5  days  two  thirds  of  the  plants  were  killed  in 
60  minutes  exposure  to  —2.5  degrees  C.  and  when  kept  in  the  greenhouse 
all  were  killed  on  exposure  to  —2.5  degrees  C.  for  60  minutes.  When  the 
plants  were  hardened  for  5  days  at  5  degrees  C.  they  were  not  injured  at 
—  2.5  degrees  C.  in  60  minutes,  but  when  kept  at  5  degrees  C.  for  10  days 
one-third  of  the  plants  were  killed  at  —4.5  degrees  C.  in  60  minutes. 

He  found  that  when  plants  were  taken  back  into  the  greenhouse, 
hardiness  was  lost  in  about  the  same  length  of  time  it  took  to  acquire 
hardiness. 

Under  natural  conditions  the  hardiness  acquired  in  one  night  of  low  tem- 
perature may  be  lost  during  the  succeeding  warm  day  and  there  is  accumulative 
effect  only  when  the  average  temperature  is  low. 

Hardening  plants  by  withholding  water  and  by  subjecting  them  to 
relatively  low  temperatures  are  practical  methods,  but  growing  them  in 
poor  soil  is  not,  because  the  gardener  wants  his  plants  to  make  good 
growth.  This  is  impossible  in  poor  soils  and  for  this  reason  the  soil  used 
for  growing  plants  is  usually  fairly  rich,  especially  when  the  plants  are 
transplanted  before  being  taken  to  the  field. 

The  results  reported  by  Rosa  (127)  give  a  possible  explanation  as  to 
why  cabbage  plants  can  be  hardened  so  that  they  will  withstand  freezing 
while  tomato  plants  do  not  possess  potential  hardiness.  He  found  that 
acidity  was  much  greater  in  hardened  cabbage  and  lettuce  plants  than  in 
unhardened  plants,  while  with  the  tomato  the  hardening  treatment  did 
not  increase  acidity.  He  found  also  that  the  increase  in  water  soluble 
pentosans,  due  to  the  hardening  treatment,  was  greater  for  plants  possess- 
ing potential  hardiness,  as  the  cabbage,  than  for  those  which  do  not  possess 
it,  as  the  tomato. 


CHAPTER  IX 
PLANTING  VEGETABLE  CROPS  IN  THE  OPEN 

The  time  and  method  of  planting  seeds  and  plants  of  a  particular 
species  in  the  open  determine  to  a  considerable  extent  the  success  or 
failure  of  the  crop.  Even  with  good  seeds  or  good  plants  satisfactory 
and  profitable  crops  will  not  be  produced  unless  the  planting  is  done  at 
the  right  time  and  in  a  proper  manner.  Attention  must  be  given  to  the 
preparation  of  the  soil  for  the  seed  bed,  to  the  depth  of  planting,  rate  of 
planting  and  to  various  other  factors  such  as  thinning  and  watering  to 
insure  a  satisfactory  stand  of  plants.  Planting  both  seeds  and  plants  in 
the  open  is  considered  in  this  chapter. 

Time  of  Planting. — No  definite  date  can  be  given  for  planting  vege- 
table seeds  and  plants,  because  climatic  conditions  vary  widely  within 
relatively  small  areas  due  to  differences  in  elevation,  proximity  to  large 
bodies  of  water,  etc.  The  time  of  planting  should  be  determined  with 
reference  to  the  soil  and  weather  conditions;  to  the  kind  of  crop  and  to  the 
time  the  produce  is  desired.  Earliness  is  an  important  factor  and  most 
commercial  and  home  gardeners  aim  to  plant  their  vegetable  seeds  and 
plants  as  soon  as  it  is  safe.  Vegetable  crops  may  be  grouped  into  three 
classes  with  respect  to  cold  resistance:  (1)  Hardy  or  those  which  will 
withstand  hard  frosts;  (2)  half-hardy  or  those  which  will  withstand  light 
frosts  and  the  seeds  of  which  will  germinate  at  low  temperatures;  (3) 
tender  or  those  unable  to  withstand  any  frost  and  the  seeds  of  which  will 
not  germinate  in  cold  soil.  The  hardy  group  includes  kale,  spinach,  tur- 
nip, mustard,  onion  and  smooth  peas  and  seeds  of  these  may  be  planted  as 
soon  as  the  soil  can  be  prepared  in  the  spring.  Cabbage  plants,  which 
have  been  well  hardened,  may  also  be  transplanted  into  the  open  at 
this  time.  Seeds  and  plants  of  the  half-hardy  group  may  be  planted  two 
or  three  weeks  before  settled  weather,  or  before  the  danger  of  killing  frost 
is  over.  Beets,  carrots,  parsnips,  celery,  (seed  and  hardened  plants) 
lettuce,  wrinkled  peas  and  chard  belong  to  this  group.  The  third  group 
includes  beans,  sweet  corn,  lima  beans,  squash,  pumpkin,  melons,  cucum- 
bers, okra,  tomato  plants,  eggplant  and  pepper  plants.  Sweet  corn  and 
beans  will  withstand  more  cold  than  the  others  in  this  group  and  are 
often  planted  before  danger  of  frost  is  over.  It  pays  to  take  some 
chances  on  most  crops  which  are  grown  from  seed  planted  directly  in  the 
field,  since  the  cost  of  seed  and  labor  of  planting  are  usually  not  largo 
items  and  earliness  means  much  in  marketing  the  crop. 

78 


PLANTING  VEGETABLE  CROPS  79 

When  more  than  one  planting  is  made  of  any  crop  the  second  and  later 
plantings  should  be  timed  so  as  to  have  a  continuous  harvest.  This  is 
especiall}^  important  with  beans,  sweet  corn,  spinach,  lettuce  and  many 
other  crops,  which  deteriorate  rapidly  in  quality  as  they  become  old. 

Depth  of  Planting  Seeds. — No  definite  rules  can  be  given  regarding 
the  depth  to  plant  seeds  of  various  kinds.  The  size  of  the  seed,  the  kind 
of  soil  and  the  amount  of  moisture  in  the  soil  should  be  considered. 
Large  seeds  are  planted  deeper  than  small  seeds,  although  it  does  not 
follow  that  the  largest  seeds  should  be  planted  the  deepest.  Kidney  beans 
and  lima  beans  are  not  usually  planted  as  deep  as  peas,  because  unlike 
the  pea  the  young  bean  plant  pushes  the  cotyledons  up  through  the 
soil  and  if  the  covering  is  too  deep  they  may  be  broken  off  and  the  plant 
thereb}'  injured.  Small  seeds,  as  celery,  are  often  merely  pressed  into  the 
soil  or  covered  with  burlap  or  other  similar  material.  On  light  soils  such 
as  fine  sand  or  sandy  loams,  seeds  are  planted  to  a  greater  depth  than  on 
heavy  soils.  The  more  moisture  there  is  present  in  the  soil  the  less  the 
need  there  is  for  deep  planting  and  for  this  reason  seeds  are  usually  given 
a  relatively  light  covering  in  the  spring.  The  same  kind  of  seeds  planted 
in  late  summer  require  greater  covering  because  the  surface  layer  of  soil 
is  usually  drier  and  it  is  necessary  to  place  the  seed  at  a  greater  depth  to 
secure  sufficient  moisture  to  insure  germination  and  to  bring  the  plant 
to  the  surface. 

Marking  Rows. — Straight  rows  and  even  spacing  are  important  in 
growing  vegetables  on  a  commercial  scale.  Straight  rows  add  to  the 
appearance  and  also  make  cultivation  easier  and  more  rapid.  In  spray- 
ing celery  and  other  crops  with  a  power  sprayer  straight  rows  and  uniform 
spacing  are  essential  to  good  work.  The  spray  nozzles  are  usually  set 
certain  distances  apart,  and,  while  they  can  be  changed,  it  requires  much 
time  to  adjust  them  for  each  set  of  rows  to  be  sprayed. 

Straight  rows  can  be  secured  by  using  either  a  line,  or  markers  of 
various  kinds.  When  drills  are  used  for  planting  seeds  a  line  should.be 
used  for  the  first  row  and  the  marker  attachment  used  for  the  remainder. 
The  operator  needs  to  take  considerable  pains  to  keep  the  rows  straight 
when  using  the  marker  on  the  seed  drill,  or  when  marking  the  rows  with 
a  hand  marker.  The  most  careful  and  painstaking  men  should  be  used 
for  marking  out  the  land  and  sowing  seeds  with  a  drill. 

Methods  of  Planting. — Most  commercial  gardeners  plant  seeds  with 
machine  planters  of  some  kind.  Machines  do  the  work  much  better 
and  more  rapidly  than  is  possible  by  hand  sowing.  The  common  seed 
drills  open  the  furrow,  drop  the  seeds,  cover  them  and  pack  the  soil  at 
one  operation.  These  drills  can  be  regulated  to  sow  at  various  rates 
and  at  the  depth  desired.  By  regulating  the  rate  of  seed-sowing,  thin- 
ning can  be  reduced  to  the  minimum.  There  are  several  makes  of  seed 
drills  on  the  market  and  all  of  them  are  satisfactory  when  properly  used. 


80  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

Sowing  seed  by  hand  is  commonly  practiced  in  home  gardens,  as  too 
small  quantity  of  any  one  kind  of  seed  is  used  to  justify  the  expense  of  a 
seed  drill.  It  would  be  necessary  to  adjust  the  drill  to  the  different  kinds 
of  seeds  and  the  time  required  to  do  this  would  often  be  enough  to  do  the 
planting  by  hand.  A  garden  line  or  marker  should  be  used  when  planting 
is  to  be  done  by  hand  in  order  to  secure  straight  rows.  The  furrow  for 
small  seeds  may  be  made  with  the  rake  or  hoe  handle,  using  the  same 
kind  of  a  motion  one  uses  in  sweeping.  For  large  seeds  the  furrow  may 
be  made  with  the  corner  of  an  ordinary  hoe;  with  a  heart-shaped  hoe;  with 
the  plow  attachment ;  or  with  one  of  the  cultivator  teeth  of  a  wheel  hoe. 
The  seeds  should  be  distributed  uniformly  in  the  furrow.  Small  seeds  such 
as  radish,  turnip,  lettuce,  etc.  may  be  sown  direct  from  the  seed  packet 
or  from  an  envelope  with  the  end  cut  open,  b}^  moving  it  slowly  over  the 
row  and  tapping  it  lightly  with  the  finger.  The  seeds  should  be  covered 
immediately  to  prevent  loss  of  moisture  from  the  soil.  After  covering 
the  seeds  the  soil,  if  dry,  should  be  firmed  by  trampling  or  by  tamping 
with  the  back  of  the  hoe.  This  is  especially  important  when  the  soil  is 
quite  dry  as  it  brings  the  seed  into  close  contact  with  the  soil  particles 
and  makes  capillary  action  stronger.  The  seed  drill  has  a  broad  wheel 
which  packs  the  soil  over  the  seeds. 

Rate  of  Planting. — Among  the  points  to  be  taken  into  consideration 
in  regard  to  the  amount  of  seed  to  plant  are:  (1)  The  viability  of  the  seed, 
(2)  the  time  of  planting,  (3)  the  condition  of  the  soil,  (4)  the  size  and  vigor 
of  the  young  plants  and  (5)  the  possible  ravages  of  insects. 

Seeds  of  low  viability  should  be  planted  more  thickly  than  those 
having  a  high  percentage  of  germination.  In  order  to  determine  the  rate 
of  seeding  a  germination  test  should  be  made  in  advance.  If  the  per- 
centage of  germination  is  low,  or  if  the  sprout  is  weak  the  seed  should 
not  be  planted,  for  a  poor  stand  of  weak  plants  would  result. 

Seeds  planted  when  the  soil  and  weather  conditions  are  unfavorable 
to  quick  germination  should  be  planted  at  a  heavier  rate  than  when  the 
conditions  are  favorable.  In  early  spring  when  the  soil  is  cold,  and  in 
late  summer  when  the  soil  is  very  dry  and  the  weather  hot  the  rate  of 
seeding  should  be  heavier  than  when  the  temperature  and  moisture  are 
favorable.  The  longer  the  time  required  for  germination  of  any  given 
kind  of  seed  the  heavier  should  be  the  rate  of  planting. 

Seeds  which  produce  delicate  weak  plants,  such  as  carrots  and  pars- 
nips, should  be  planted  quite  thickly  to  insure  a  good  stand.  Any  excess 
of  plants  may  be  removed  to  prevent  crowding. 

In  planting  seeds  of  melons  and  cucumbers  it  is  a  common  practice 
to  plant  freely  in  order  to  have  several  times  as  many  plants  as  are  needed. 
In  most  regions  it  is  expected  that  the  cucumber  beetle  will  seriously 
injure,  or  even  kill  many  of  the  plants.  Unless  large  numbers  arc  started 
the  chances  are  against  saving  enough  for  a  good  stand  of  strong  plants. 


PLANTING  VEGETABLE  CROPS  81 

After  the  beetles  have  disappeared  the  plants  may  be  thinned  to  the 
desired  distance  apart. 

Thinning.— This  is  an  important  operation  when  seeds  are  planted 
where  the  crop  is  to  mature  for  more  plants  usually  come  up  than  are 
needed,  and,  unless  some  are  removed,  injury  by  crowding  will  result. 
Thinning  may  be  made  a  process  of  selection.  The  weakest  plants 
should  be  discarded  and  the  strongest  left  to  grow.  By  thinning  a  uni- 
form stand  is  secured,  but  as  this  is  a  tedious  and  expensive  operation 
gardeners  try  to  avoid  it  as  much  as  possible  by  planting  the  proper 
amount  of  seed  and  distributing  it  evenly.  There  is  a  tendency  among 
gardeners  to  delay  thinning  too  long  and  this  results  in  the  plants  that 
are  to  be  left  being  relatively  weak.  Thinning  should  be  done  as  soon 
as  there  is  reasonable  assurance  that  the  plants  left  will  not  be  killed  by 
unfavorable  weather  conditions,  or  destroyed  by  insects  which  are 
injurious  during  the  early  stages  of  the  plants'  growth. 

Transplanting. — Success  in  transplanting  plants  to  the  field  or  garden 
is  dependent  upon  good  plants,  good  condition  of  the  soil  and  doing  the 
work  in  the  proper  manner.  The  plants  should  be  well-grown,  stocky 
and  well-hardened  to  withstand  the  changed  conditions.  Slender, 
unusually  soft  or  succulent  plants  do  not  withstand  unfavorable  soil  and 
weather  conditions  as  well  as  hardened  plants.  It  is  well  known  that 
hardened  plants  will  withstand  a  lower  temperature  than  plants  not 
hardened,  but  it  is  not  so  well  known  that  hardened  plants  also  suffer 
less  from  dry  or  hot  weather. 

The  soil  should  be  thoroughly  prepared  prior  to  transplanting.  It  is 
very  difficult  to  set  plants  properly  in  hard,  lumpy  soil  and  plants  set 
under  these  conditions  are  likely  to  be  seriously  checked  in  growth,  or  to 
become  weak  and  die. 

The  best  time  to  set  plants  is  just  before,  or  just  after,  a  rain,  especially 
if  the  weather  is  cloudy.  Cool,  cloudy  weather  is  desirable  because 
evaporation  and  transpiration  are  less  under  these  conditions  than  in 
hot,  dry  weather.  When  it  is  necessary  to  transplant  in  hot,  dry  weather 
it  is  desirable  to  do  the  work  in  the  late  afternoon  if  possible  in  order 
that  the  plants  may  have  time  during  the  night  to  recuperate  from  the 
shock  of  transplanting.  However,  with  soil  in  good  condition,  plants 
that  have  been  previously  transplanted  and  well  hardened  can  be 
set  even  during  hot,  dry  weather  without  much  wilting  if  they  are 
taken  up  with  a  block  of  earth  around  the  roots.  Plants  that  have 
not  been  transplanted  previously  and  are  pulled  from  the  seed  bed 
without  any  soil  adhering  to  the  roots  should  be  watered  when  the 
soil  is  very  dry. 

Plants  are  set  by  hand  or  by  machines  of  various  kinds.  When  set- 
ting by  hand,  various  methods  are  used.  For  plants  that  have  been 
transplanted  prior  to  field  planting,  it  is  usuall}^  the  custom  to  take  them 


82 


VEGETABLE  CROPS 


up  with  considerables  soil  around  the  roots,  and  in  settii)g  them  a  furrow  is 
made  with  a  small  plow,  oi-  a  hole  large  enough  to  take  in  the  block  or  ball 
of  soil  is  dug  with  a  trowel,  shovel  or  spade.  For  large  plants  like  toma- 
toes a  one-horse  turn  plow  may  be  used  to  good  advantage  for  opening  the 
furrow.  The  plants  are  set  in  the  furrow  and  earth  is  packed  around  each 
with  the  hand  and  the  remainder  of  the  furrow  is  filled  with  a  cultivator. 
The  plow  attachment  of  a  hand  cultivator,  such  as  the  Planet  Junior,  is 
valuable  for  opening  furrows  for  cabbage,  lettuce,  celery  and  similar 
plants  which  have  been  transplanted  previously.  The  depth  of  the  fur- 
row can  be  regulated  to  suit  the  size  of  the  plants. 
The  best  tool  for  making  a  hole  for  transplanting 
plants  which  are  taken  direct  from  the  seed  bed  is  the 
dibble.  This  tool  makes  a  hole  without  removing  the 
soil.  The  dibble  is  held  in  one  hand  and  the  plant 
in  the  other  and  after  the  hole  is  made  a  plant  is  in- 
serted and  then  both  hands  are  used  to  firm  the  soil 
around  the  roots,  or  the  dibble  may  be  used  to  press 
the  soil  against  the  plant.  Care  should  be  taken  to 
see  that  the"  soil  is  firmed  around  the  roots  and  that 
no  space  is  left  unfilled  at  the  bottom  of  the  hole. 
The  trowel  and  spade  are  also  used  in  setting  plants 
either  in  the  same  manner  as  the  dibble,  or  in  digging 
holes  for  receiving  the  plants.  There  are  small  hand 
planters  on  the  market  similar  to^the  one  shown  in 
Fig.  3,  which  work  very  satisfactorily  in  good  soil. 
A  small  tank  on  the  side  for  water  may  be  used  if 
desired.  By  tripping  the  lever  at  the  top  a  small 
amount  of  water  is  applied  around  the  roots  of  the 
plant,  but  this  method  of  watering  is  practicable  only 
on  a  small  scale. 

Large  scale  planting  of  cabbage,  sweet  potato, 
tomato  and  similar  plants  is  often  done  by  means  of 
a  transplanting  machine.  These  machines  do  the 
work  better  and  more  rapidly  than  is  commonly  done 
by  hand.  These  machines  open  the  furrow,  apply  water  and  firm  the  soil 
around  the  roots  at  one  operation.  Three  persons  and  two  horses  are 
necessary  to  operate  this  type  of  transplanter.  One  man  drives  and  two 
men,  or  two  careful  boys,  alternate  in  placing  the  plants  in  the  furrow 
at  the  proper  distances.  Shoes  close  the  furrow  and  press  the  soil  against 
the  roots  and  stem.  For  close  planting  (15  inches)  the  team  must  walk 
slowly  and  the  men  or  boys  work  rapidly  to  get  the  plants  properly  set. 
The  water  is  applied  from  the  barrel  through  a  hose  which  ends  just  in 
front  of  the  shoes  of  the  transplanter.  Transplanting  machines  are  not 
used  to  very  good  advantage  in  setting  large  plants  which  have  soil 


Fig.  3. — A  small  hand 
planter  used  for  setting 
plants  in  the  garden  or 
field.  {Courtesy  of 
Master's    Planter    Co.) 


PLANTING  VEGETABLE  CROPS  83 

around  the  roots  as  is  usually  the  case  with  transplanted  ones;  therefore 
such  plants  are  generally  set  by  hand. 

Plants  should  be  set  slightly  deeper  than  they  were  in  the  seed  bed. 
It  is  an  advantage  to  set  long  slender  plants  quite  deep  as  this  will  keep 
them  from  being  whipped  by  the  wind,  and,  with  some  plants  as  the 
tomato,  roots  will  grow  from  all  of  the  joints  below  the  sinface  of  the 
soil.  Care  must  be  taken  not  to  set  celery  and  lettuce  plants  so  deep 
that  the  crown  will  be  buried. 

Watering. — A  plant  set  in  very  dry  soil  should  be  watered  unless 
there  is  a  block  or  ball  of  moist  soil  around  the  roots.  The  water  should 
be  applied  around  the  roots  and  the  wet  soil  covered  with  dry  earth  to 
prevent  baking.  In  hand  planting  a  little  soil  is  usually  packed  around 
the  roots  and  then  the  water  is  poured  into  the  depression.  After  the 
water  disappears  the  hole  is  filled  with  dry  soil.  The  transplanting 
machine  applies  the  water  about  the  roots  and  in  such  small  amounts 
that  the  surface  of  the  soil  is  not  puddled. 

When  watering  is  not  practicable  the  roots  of  the  plant  are  often 
puddled  prior  to  setting.  This  is  done  by  dipping  the  roots  into  a  thin 
paste  made  with  clay  in  water.  Puddhng  prevents  drying  of  the  roots 
and  also  causes  the  soil  particles  to  adhere  to  them  when  planted.  The 
mud  paste  should  not  be  allowed  to  dry  on  the  roots  as  this  would  cause 
injury  by  preventing  the  moist  soil  from  coming  into  contact  with  them. 
The  puddling  should  be  done  just  before  planting  or  else  the  puddled 
plants  covered  with  moist  burlap,  moist  moss,  straw  or  other  material  to 
prevent  evaporation  of  moisture  in  the  paste.  Puddling  requires  much 
less  labor  than  w^atering  the  plants  and  gives  quite  satisfactory  results 
when  properly  done.  When  plants  are  watered  after  being  planted  it 
is  desirable  to  cover  the  moist  soil  with  a  little  loose,  dry  earth  to  prevent 
rapid  drying  and  consequent  baking  and  cracking. 


CHAPTER  X 
CULTIVATION 

Tiic  term  cultivation  may  be  applied  to  any  operation  which  has 
for  its  object  the  stirring  of  the  soil  after  a  crop  is  planted.  It  is  the 
intertillage  of  crops  and  may  be  accomplished  by  means  of  hand  tools, 
such  as  hoes,  rakes,  hand  cultivators,  etc.  or  by  larger  implements  drawn 
by  horses  or  tractors.  The  main  objects  of  cultivation  are  to  control 
weed  growth  and  to  keep  the  surface  of  the  soil  loose. 

Benefits  Derived  from  Cultivation. — Many  theories  have  been 
advanced  to  explain  the  benefits  of  cultivation  and  many  experiments 
have  been  conducted  to  determine  the  factors  responsible  for  its  bene- 
ficial effects  on  crop  plants,  especially  corn.  Among  the  factors  thought 
to  be  responsible  for  the  beneficial  effects  of  cultivation  are : 

1.  Conservation  of  moisture  due  to  the  breaking  of  the  capillary  film  in  the 
formation  of  a  soil  mulch,  and  thereby  checking  evaporation  from  the  surface. 

2.  The  destruction  of  weeds.  This  is  a  conservation  measure  as  weeds  rob  crop 
plants  of  both  moisture  and  mineral  nutrients,  and  in  addition  crowd  or  shade  them, 
causing  weak  growth. 

3.  Increase  the  rate  of  nitrate  formation  and  the  release  of  mineral  elements 
in  the  soil  due  to  moisture  conservation,  increased  aeration  and  increase  in  growth  of 
soil  organisms. 

4.  Increased  aeration.  Breaking  up  of  the  surface  crust  is  tliought  to  increase 
aeration,  but  it  has  not  been  definitely  proved.  Aeration  is  supposed  to  be  beneficial 
because  of  the  effects  of  the  air  on  nitrification,  and  on  the  chemical  changes  in  the 
mineral  elements  in  the  soil.  It  is  also  claimed  that  aeration  hastens  the  oxidation  of 
injurious  substances  in  the  soil. 

5.  Increased  growth  of  soil  organisms,  especially  those  that  are  beneficial,  such  as 
nitrifying  bacteria. 

6.  Increased  absorption  and  retention  of  heat. 

While  all  of  the  factors  mentioned  may  be  affected  by  cultivation 
the  conservation  of  moisture,  due  to  the  destruction  of  weeds  is  probably 
the  most  important  benefit  derived  from  stirring  the  soil.  Moisture 
conservation  probably  influences  all  of  the  other  factors.  That  the 
destruction  of  weeds  is  the  most  important  benefit  derived  from  cultiva- 
tion of  corn  has  been  proven  by  many  investigators.  In  fact,  it  has  been 
shown  that  keeping  down  weeds,  without  stirring  the  soil,  has  given 
practically  as  good  results  as  cultivation  as  far  as  corn  is  concerned. 
Experiments  have  shown  no  appreciable  conservation  of  moisture  due 

S4 


CULTIVATION  85 

to  the  maintenance  of  a  soil  mulch,  in  corn  fields,  provided  weeds  were 
kept  down  by  scraping  or  cutting  off  at  the  surface  of  the  ground. 

Gates  and  Cox  (22)  express  the  opinion  that  the  very  extensive  root 
system  of  the  corn  plant  acts  as  an  absorbing  mulch  and  that  practically 
none  of  the  capillary  moisture  reaches  the  surface  to  be  lost  by  evapora- 
tion. This,  they  believe,  accounts  for  the  fact  that  cultivation  of  corn 
has  not  been  found  beneficial  from  the  standpoint  of  moisture  conservation. 
Other  investigators  have  expressed  similar  opinions. 

Sewel  (132)  after  a  thorough  review  of  the  literature  on  tillage  states: 

In  general  we  may  conclude  that  the  prevailing  theories  advocating  deep 
plowing  and  frequent  cultivation  are  not  founded  upon  experimental  results .  .  . 
Cultivation  may  be  necessary  only  to  kill  weeds  and  to  keep  the  soil  in  a  receptive 
condition  to  absorb  rainfall.  Thus  it  is  practicable,  except  on  very  heavy  soils, 
to  reduce  the  amount  of  cultivation  where  the  guiding  policy  is  that  of  thorough 
cultivation  in  order  to  maintain  a  soil  mulch. 

In  vegetable  growing  it  has  been  thought  that  maintaining  a  soil  mulch 
is  the  most  important  object  of  cultivation.  This  idea  is  based  very 
largely  on  theory,  since  very  little  experimental  work  has  been  done  on 
this  problem. 

Experimental  Work  on  Vegetable  Cultivation.— In  1919  G.  K. 
Middleton,  a  graduate  student  at  Cornell  University,  began  a  study  of  the 
effects  of  cultivation  of  various  vegetables  on  yields,  soil  moisture 
and  other  factors.  The  work  was  continued  by  the  author  in  1920  and 
results  summarized  in  a  paper  read  before  the  American  Society  for 
Horticultural  Science  (158).  While  these  experiments  are  not  at  all 
conclusive  as  regards  benefits  derived  from  cultivation  they  show  that 
crops  differ  in  their  responses  to  it.  In  both  1919  and  1920  the  yields 
of  onions  on  plots  cultivated  once  a  week  was  heavier  than  on  plots  that 
were  scraped  to  keep  down  weeds.  Carrots,  on  the  other  hand,  were  not 
benefitted  by  cultivation  as  compared  to  scraping  to  keep  down  weeds. 
Celery  and  cabbage  differed  materially  in  their  response  to  cultivation. 
Cultivated  plats  of  celery  produced  a  much  larger  yield  than  the  scraped 
plats  while  with  cabbage  the  reverse  was  true.  Lettuce  was  benefitted 
by  cultivation,  even  when  weed  growth  was,  not  a  factor.  Yields  of 
tomatoes  were  nearly  the  same  on  scraped  and  cultivated  plats,  but 
slightly  in  favor  of  the  latter. 

Soil  moisture  determinations  made  in  1919  show  that  maintaining 
a  soil  mulch  by  cultivation  conserved  some  moisture  in  the  soil  where 
onions  were  grown.  With  carrots  cultivation  did  not  conserve  moisture. 
The  average  moisture  content  of  the  soil  to  the  depth  of  30  inches  in  the 
scraped  plats  of  onions  was  12.65  per  cent  while  in  the  plats  cultivated 
once  a  week  it  was  13.66  per  cent  on  the  dry  soil  basis.  This  shows  a 
difference  of  practically  1  per  cent  in  favor  of  cultivation.     The  average 


86  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

moisture  in  the  soil  of  the  scraped  plats  of  carrots  was  14.52  per  cent 
and  in  the  plats  cultivated  once  a  week  it  was  13.84  per  cent  or  a  difference 
of  0.68  per  cent  in  favor  of  scraping  to  keep  down  weeds.  The  difference 
in  the  character  of  top  growth  and  in  the  amount  and  distribution  of  the 
root  system  may  account  for  difference  between  carrots  and  onions  in 
their  response  to  cultivation  for  purposes  other  than  the  control  of  weeds. 
The  top  growth  of  carrot  is  much  heavier  and  shades  the  ground  more 
than  the  top  growth  of  onions.  This  would  undoubtedly  make  some 
difference  in  the  loss  of  moisture  by  evaporation  from  the  surface. 

A  study  of  the  root  systems  of  onions,  carrots,  cabbage  and  celery 
made  in  1919  and  1920  gives  a  possible  explanation  of  the  differences  in 
the  response  of  these  to  cultivation  as  compared  to  scraping  to  keep  down 
weeds.  Very  few  roots  of  the  full-grown  onion  plants,  grown  on  Dunkirk 
gravelly,  sandy  loam  soil,  were  found  at  a  depth  of  10  inches,  though 
one  or  two  reached  the  depth  of  20  inches.  The  greatest  lateral  extent 
was  12  inches,  but  very  few  reached  out  more  than  6  inches  and  the  main 
root  zone  was  found  within  a  radius  of  6  inches.  A  space  of  6  to  12  inches 
wide  in  the  center  between  the  rows,  18  inches  apart,  contained  very 
few  roots.  This  means  that  the  moisture  rising  in  the  soil  by  capillarity 
would  not  be  intercepted  by  roots  in  the  6  to  12-inch  space  between  the 
rows.  Nor  would  the  roots  be  broken  to  any  great  extent  by  cultivation 
late  in  the  season  when  the  cultivator  is  not  run  close  to  the  plants. 

Carrot  roots  were  found  to  fill  the  soil  much  more  extensively  than 
the  roots  of  onions.  The  tap  root  and  several  large  roots  arising  from  the 
side  of  the  carrot  were  found  to  have  reached  a  depth  of  30  inches.  These 
roots  produced  numerous  branches  which  were  divided  and  sub-divided. 
Directly  beneath  the  plant  the  soil  was  well-filled  with  roots  to  the 
depth  of  25  to  30  inches.  A  space  4  to  6  inches  between  the  rows, 
18  inches  apart,  was  not  so  well  filled  although  at  a  depth  of  4  to  8 
inches  many  roots  met  and  crossed  in  the  centers.  The  root  system  of 
the  carrot  is  much  larger  than  that  of  the  onion  and  reaches  to  a 
greater  depth. 

Celery  roots  were  found  largely  in  the  surface  6  inches  of  soil  and 
within  a  radius  of  6  inches  of  the  plant.  There  was  a  distinct  line  between 
the  surface  soil  and  the  subsoil,  most  of  the  roots  stopping  at  the  subsoil 
although  a  few  reached  the  depth  of  24  to  27  inches.  The  soil  to  a  depth 
of  6  inches  and  within  a  radius  of  6  inches  of  the  plant  was  well-filled 
with  fine  roots,  but  a  space  12  to  18  inches  wide  between  the  rows  (3  feet 
apart)  contained  practically  no  roots.  There  was  no  tap  root,  but  from 
30  to  50  large  lateral  roots  grew  out  from  the  base  of  the  plant  in  all 
directions  and  these  were  covered  with  fine  branches  throughout  their 
length.  These  fine  roots  were  not  sub-divided.  In  addition  to  the 
larger  roots  hundreds  of  small,  fibrous  roots,  6  to  12  inches  long  grew 
out  from  the  base  of  the  plant  and  these  were  not  branched. 


CULTIVATION  87 

Cabbage  roots  were  found  to  the  depth  of  30  inches,  even  the  finer 
roots  being  found  in  considerable  numbers  as  deep  as  24  inches.  How- 
ever, a  large  part  of  the  root  system  was  found  in  the  surface  12  inches  of 
soil.  The  roots  extended  laterally  as  far  as  three  feet  and  were  about 
as  plentiful  midway  between  the  rows  as  within  a  few  inches  of  the  plant. 
The  soil  between  the  rows  was  well-filled  with  long  slender  roots  to  the 
depth  of  6  inches,  although  the  greatest  mass  was  found  within  3 
inches  of  the  surface.  Since  the  roots  of  cabbage  so  thoroughly  filled 
the  soil,  most  of  the  capillary  moisture  was  probably  intercepted  before 
it  reached  the  surface.  Many  of  the  roots  near  the  surface  were  broken 
by  cultivation  even  though  the  work  was  done  with  hand  cultivators. 

When  to  Cultivate.^In  all  tillage  operations  timeliness  and  thorough- 
ness are  of  great  importance.  Where  the  maintenance  of  a  soil  mulch  is 
important  cultivation  should  be  done  whenever  the  soil  becomes  packed 
or  a  crust  is  formed,  regardless  of  the  number  of  times.  Many  of  the  best 
gardeners  cultivate  as  soon  as  possible  after  every  rain  in  order  to  break 
up  the  surface  crust  and  to  destroy  weeds.  For  destroying  weeds  the 
best  time  to  cultivate  is  just  as  they  are  breaking  through  the  surface 
because  at  this  time  the  roots  are  small  and  do  not  have  much  of  a  hold 
on  the  soil.  When  weeds  are  destroyed  while  very  small  moisture 
and  mineral  nutrients  are  saved  for  the  crop  plants.  Large  weeds  are  diffi- 
cult to  eradicate  with  the  ordinary  cultivators  and  for  this  reason  it  is  best 
to  cultivate  before  the  weeds  have  become  firmly  rooted  in  the  soil. 

No  definite  rule  can  be  given  as  to  the  best  time  to  cultivate  each 
kind  of  crop  under  different  conditions.  The  best  practice  for  one  crop 
may  not  be  the  best  for  another  and  what  is  good  on  one  type  of  soil 
may  not  be  satisfactory  on  another.  Until  more  experimental  data  are 
available  the  practice  of  cultivating  whenever  weeds  start  or  a  crust 
forms  on  the  soil  will  probably  be  recommended.  The  practice  followed 
by  some  gardeners  of  cultivating  once  a  week  or  oftener,  regardless  of 
weeds  and  regardless  of  the  condition  of  the  soil,  seems  to  involve  an 
unnecessary  expense.  When  there  is  no  weed  growth  and  when  there  is 
a  good  mulch  on  the  surface  nothing  is  accomplished  by  stirring  the  soil, 
unless  the  moist  soil  below  the  mulch  is  reached  and  in  this  case  moisture 
is  likely  to  be  lost.  Bringing  moist  soil  to  the  surface  hastens  the  drying 
process  and,  during  a  period  of  drouth,  injury  to  the  crop  plants  is  the 
result. 

Shallow  vs.  Deep  Cultivation.^ — Shallow  cultivation  is  generally  recom- 
mended because  plants  are  less  likely  to  be  injured  by  having  their  roots 
broken  than  where  deep  cultivation  is  practiced.  In  addition  to  this, 
when  it  is  desirable  to  conserve  moisture,  deep  cultivation  Is  objection- 
able on  account  of  bringing  the  moist  soil  to  the  surface  to  be  dried  out  by 
evaporation.  In  the  spring,  when  it  is  desirable  to  have  the  surface  soil 
dry  out,  and  to  prevent  packing,  deep  cultivation  may  be  justified,  but 


88  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

under  other  conditions  it  is  not  advisable.  Practically  all  of  the  benefits 
derived  from  cultivation  are  secured  through  shallow  cultivation.  The 
depth  that  it  is  safe  to  cultivate  depends  upon  the  stage  of  growth  and 
upon  the  character  and  distribution  of  the  root  system.  When  the  plants 
are  small  and  the  roots  have  not  spread  very  much  deep  cultivation  is 
not  likely  to  be  injurious  unless  the  cultivator  is  run  too  near  the  row. 
Where  deep  cultivation  is  practiced  during  the  early  stages  of  growth  the 
depth  should  be  lessened  as  the  plants  grow  larger  and  root  development 
increases.  As  has  been  indicated,  some  crops,  and  possibly  all  of  them, 
are  injured  by  deep  cultivation,  but  some  are  more  injured  than  others. 
Plants  which  have  a  considerable  portion  of  their  feeding  roots  near  the 
surface  (3  or  4  inches)  are  more  injured  by  deep  cultivation  than  those 
whose  roots  are  largely  below  the  surface  4  inches  of  soil.  Cabbage  plants 
are  undoubtedly  injured  by  any  kind  of  cultivation  late  in  the  stage  of 
their  development  because  of  injury  to  the  roots.  Unless  cultivation  is 
necessary  to  keep  down  weeds  it  may  do  more  harm  than  good  when  the 
cabbage  crop  is  more  than  half  grown. 

Cultivating  Implements  and  Tools. — There  are  at  present  three  gen- 
eral types  of  cultivators  on  the  market,  viz.,  horse,  tractor  and  hand 
cultivators.  All  of  these  types  may  be  provided  with  various  attach- 
ments such  as  shovels,  scrapers,  teeth,  disks  or  rakes.  The  shovel  and 
teeth  attachments  are  the  ones  most  commonly  used  in  ordinary  culti- 
vation, but  where  the  weed  growth  is  very  troublesome  the  scraper 
attachments  are  often  employed.  In  the  South  the  "sweep "  is  very  often 
used  in  cultivating  vegetables  as  well  as  corn  and  cotton,  but  it  is  best 
not  to  let  weeds  get  such  a  start  that  this  is  necessar3^  The  sweep  cuts 
off  the  weeds,  but  leaves  bare,  scraped  soil  behind  the  sweep  stock. 

Two-horse  cultivators  are  sometimes  used  for  cultivating  sweet 
corn,  tomatoes,  cabbage  and  other  crops  grown  on  a  large  scale,  but  in 
most  gardening  operations  the  one-horse  cultivator,  with  shovel  or  teeth 
attachments,  is  more  common.  For  large  scale  production  of  crops  the 
two-row  or  at  least  the  two-horse,  one-row  cultivator  will  be  found  more 
economical  than  the  one-horse  cultivator.  For  careful  work  on  crops 
planted  in  rows  3  feet  or  less  in  width,  the  one-horse  cultivator  with  five 
shovels  or  the  harrow  cultivator  with  11  to  15  teeth  is  more  satis- 
factory than  the  larger  type.  Small  teeth  are  preferable  to  shovels  for 
most  cultivation  as  the  former  leave  the  surface  smoother,  bring  less 
moist  soil  to  the  surface  and  usually  do  not  run  as  deep. 

Large  tractors  are  not  used  to  any  great  extent  for  pulling  cultivators 
in  the  growing  of  vegetables,  although  they  are  used  by  many  growers 
for  soil  preparation.  Within  the  past  few  years  several  types  of  garden 
tractors  have  been  put  on  the  market.  These  range  all  the  way  from 
tractors  large  enough  to  pull  a  fair-sized  plow  down  to  those  that  pull 
only  light  cultivators.     Some  of  these  are  recommended  for  all  garden 


CULTIVATION  89 

operations  from  soil  preparation  to  planting  and  cultivating  while  others 
are  made  especially  to  pull  cultivators.  Garden  tractors  have  not  been 
in  use  long  enough  to  justify  definite  statements  as  to  their  value.  Some 
gardeners  have  used  them  with  entire  satisfaction  while  others  using  the 
same  makes  of  tractors  condemn  them  as  impracticable.  They  undoubt- 
edly have  their  place  and  will  be  used  more  and  more,  but  their  limitations 
must  be  recognized  by  both  the  manufacturers  and  users.  Very  few 
garden  tractors  will  do  satisfactorily  all  of  the  work  the  sales  agents  claim 
for  them.  It  seems  safe  to  say  that  a  tractor  large  enough  to  do  good 
plowing  is  too  large  for  light  cultivation  and  need  not  be  differentiated 
from  ordinary  farm  tractors  by  calling  them  "garden  tractors."  With 
improvements  that  will  undoubtedly  be  made,  as  experience  indicates 
the  need  of  them,  garden  tractors  may  be  expected  to  become  of  greater 
value  and  be  used  to  a  much  greater  extent  than  they  are  now. 

Hand  cultivators  or  wheel  hoes  are  used  to  a  very  large  extent  by 
market  gardeners  and  truck  growers  who  cultivate  the  smaller,  more 
intensive  crops.  Practically  all  of  the  onions  and  lettuce  grown  on  muck 
soils,  and  even  on  other  types  of  soil,  are  cultivated  with  hand  cultivators. 
This  type  of  cultivator  saves  a  large  amount  of  hand  hoeing  and  weeding, 
and  enables  the  grower  to  have  rows  much  closer  than  would  be  prac- 
ticable were  horse  cultivation  to  be  given.  Hand  cultivators  can  be  used 
when  the  crop  plants  are  very  small  and  this  enables  the  gardener  to  keep 
ahead  of  the  weeds.  The  attachments  most  commonly  used  are  the  teeth, 
usually  three  in  number ;  and  the  knives,  two  in  number,  which  run  hori- 
zontally beneath  the  surface  of  the  soil,  cutting  off  the  weeds  and  leaving 
a  mulch.  The  disks  are  used  to  a  considerable  extent  for  throwing  the 
soil  away  from  the  plants  prior  to  weeding,  especially  for  celery  and 
onions,  when  the  plants  are  quite  small.  A  great  variety  of  hand  culti- 
vators is  available  to  meet  the  needs  of  all  classes  of  gardeners  and  all 
kinds  of  gardening. 

Hoeing  and  Weeding. — Intensive  gardening  requires  considerable 
hand-hoeing  and  weeding,  and  even  in  less  intensive  types  of  gardening 
this  work  must  be  done  to  some  extent.  The  hoe  and  similar  tools  are 
used  to  keep  down  weeds  and  to  form  a  mulch  between  the  plants  in  the 
row  just  as  cultivators  do  this  work  between  the  rows.  No  matter  how 
carefully  the  cultivating  is  done  some  hoeing  and  weeding  is  desirable  if 
not  absolutely  essential.  With  good  cultivation  and  hoeing  very  little 
weeding  needs  to  be  done  by  hand  on  most  crops,  but  with  onions,  lettuce, 
celery  and  root  crops,  especially  on  muck  lands,  hand  weeding  is  one  of 
the  most  expensive  and  most  laborious  operations.  In  hoeing  the  aim 
should  be  to  destroy  the  weeds  and  leave  the  surface  smooth  with  a  light 
mulch  of  fine  soil.  The  tendency  among  gardeners  is  to  reduce  hoeing 
and  weeding  to  the  minimum  and  to  do  most  of  the  work  with  cultivators 
and  weeders. 


CHAPTER  XI 
IRRIGATION 

In  arid  regions  vegetables  are  grown  commercially  under  irrigation 
and  in  semi-arid  regions  irrigation  is  essential  to  success  in  commercial 
gardening.  Even  in  humid  regions  of  the  East  and  South  irrigation  is 
used  to  a  considerable  extent  in  market  gardening  on  high-priced  lands. 
With  the  development  of  the  overhead  system  there  has  been  a  great 
increase  in  the  acreage  of  vegetables  grown  under  irrigation  in  the  humid 
sections  of  the  United  States,  especially  in  the  Atlantic  Coast  States. 
Market  gardeners  in  all  regions  are  becoming  more  and  more  interested 
in  irrigation  each  j^ear  as  they  learn  the  value  of  water  at  critical  times 
in  the  growth  of  vegetables. 

Benefits  of  Irrigation. — In  arid  regions  irrigation  is  absolutely  essential 
to  the  production  of  vegetables,  while  in  humid  climates  it  is  an  insurance. 
Gardeners  never  know  when  a  drouth  may  occur  which  will  practically 
wipe  out  the  crop,  or  materially  reduce  the  yield. 

Ross  Brothers  of  Pennsylvania  report  (Market  Growers  Journal, 
May  1,  1921)  a  return  of  $2,776  worth  of  vegetables  from  one  acre  of 
land  under  irrigation  in  1920,  besides  a  considerable  quantity  of  vege- 
tables for  home  use.  Many  other  growers  have  produced  enormous 
yields  of  crops  under  irrigation. 

Control  of  moisture  conditions  makes  it  possible  to  produce  larger 
yields  and  better  quality.  Continuous  growth  is  essential  to  high 
quality  and  it  cannot  be  assured  without  artificial  watering  during  most 
growing  seasons. 

Irrigation  is  often  of  special  value  just  after  the  seeds  are  planted  as 
moisture  is  essential  to  germination.  At  transplanting  time  irrigation 
is  very  important  if  the  soil  is  at  all  dry. 

Methods  of  Irrigation. — There  are  three  general  methods  of  irrigation 
in  use,  spray,  surface  and  sub-irrigation.  Surface  irrigation  may  be  by 
means  of  furrows  or  by  flooding.  Both  of  these  types  are  used  extensively 
in  the  arid  sections  of  the  United  States,  but  have  not  become  popular  in 
the  East. 

Furrow  irrigation  is  merely  running  the  water  through  furrows 
between  the  rows  of  plants,  while  irrigation  by  flooding  is  the  spreading 
the  water  over  the  fields  or  parts  of  fields.  The  latter  method  is  not 
applicable  to  most  vegetable  crops.  Any  surface  method  of  irrigation 
calls  for  nearly  level  land  and  for  this  reason  has  not  been  used  to  a  great 

90 


IRRIGATION  91 

extent  in  the  East  where  the  soils  will  not  permit  of  much  grading.  It 
is  claimed  that  with  nearly  level  land,  very  little  expense  is  involved  in 
the  making  of  furrows  and  the  outlay  for  equipment  is  not  as  great  as 
with  spray  irrigation.  The  main  disadvantages  of  this  system  are; 
(1)  It  requires  considerable  attention  to  operate  it;  (2)  it  is  not  practicable 
on  open  porous  soils  because  of  the  loss  of  water;  (3)  it  does  not  evenly 
distribute  the  water;  (4)  it  causes  serious  puddling  and  subsequent 
baking  of  the  soil  in  the  furrows  on  heavy  clay.  However,  where  the  land 
is  nearly  level  and  a  supply  of  water  is  near  at  hand  this  method  can  be 
used  to  advantage.  Where  a  stream  can  be  diverted  and  water  run  in 
the  furrows  by  gravity  or  where  flowing  wells  are  available  furrow  irriga- 
tion is  the  cheapest  form. 

Irrigation  by  flooding  is  used  in  growing  Bermuda  onions  in 
Texas  and  other  varieties  of  onions  in  other  sections  of  the  West 
and  Southwest.  This  method  is  applicable  only  on  level  or  nearly 
level  land. 

Sub-irrigation. — This  is  a  good  system  of  supplying  moisture  to 
plants,  but  is  not  practicable  except  in  regions  where  flowing  wells  are 
found,  because  too  much  water  is  required.  The  advantages  claimed 
for  sub-irrigation  are:  (1)  A  constant  water  supply;  (2)  the  surface  is 
kept  dry  thereby  maintaining  a  mulch,  which  prevents  rapid  evaporation; 
(3)  the  soil  is  not  puddled,  and  therefore,  the  surface  does  not  bake  after- 
wards. The  main  disadvantage  is  the  large  amount  of  water  required. 
Sub-irrigation  is  not  satisfactory  where  the  subsoil  is  porous  nor  where 
a  hardpan  or  impervious  subsoil  is  near  the  surface. 

In  Florida  sub-irrigation  is  used  to  excellent  advantage  at  Sanford 
and  elsewhere  in  the  production  of  celery,  lettuce  and  other  crops. 
Spencer  (140)  gives  the  following  as  essentials  for  successful  operation 
of  sub-irrigation  systems: 

1.  An  abundance  of  water  is  necessary.  This  is  usually  supplied  by  artesian 
wells,  obtained  by  driving  iron  pipes  down  into  the  artesian  stratum,  and  allowing 
the  water  to  rise  in  the  pipe  to  a  height  somewhat  above  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
The  water  can  also  be  brought  to  the  surface  with  force  pumps  where  it  rises  to 
within  easy  reach  from  the  surface. 

2.  A  subsoil  or  floor,  composed  of  clay,  marl  or  hardpan,  located  at  a  depth  of 
3  to  5  feet  below  the  surface  to  hold  the  water  and  prevent  its  escape  downward. 

3.  A  foot  or  more  of  coarse  sand  on  top  of  the  sub-soil  or  bottom  of  the  irri- 
gated depth  that  will  readily  absorb  and  distribute  evenly  the  water  to  be  used  in 
grading  the  artificial  water  table. 

4.  A  top  soil  of  sandy  loam  that  is  neither  too  porous  nor  too  compact,  and 
which  will  convey  the  water  freely  by  capillary  attraction. 

5.  Land  that  admits  perfect  drainage.  It  should  have  a  fall  of  about  1  inch 
to  100  feet. 

6.  Land  that  is  level  without  depression  or  raised  places. 


92  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

In  Florida  the  laterals  are  made  of  3-inch  drainage  tile  with  the  lines 
24  feet  apart.  They  are  placed  about  18  inches  deep  and  have  a  fall 
of  at  least  1  inch  to  every  100  feet. 

Spray  Irrigation. — Overhead  spray  irrigation  is  the  method  most 
commonly  used  in  humid  regions.  By  this  method  water  is  applied 
to  the  surface  of  soils  in  the  form  of  spray  or  mist.  This  method  is  an 
outgrowth  of  city  lawn  sprinkling.  The  advantages  of  this  method  are: 
(1)  As  the  water  is  applied  in  a  mist  it  causes  no  washing  of  the  soil;  (2) 
it  distributes  the  water  with  more  uniformity  than  in  the  other  systems; 
(3)  it  can  be  used  on  uneven  land  and  on  any  kind  of  soil;  (4)  it  is  more 
economical  of  water  than  any  other  method ;  (5)  it  requires  less  labor  to 
operate  than  the  surface  method;  (6)  it  may  be  used  to  apply  liquid 
fertilizers  through  the  water  pipes;  (7)  it  is  sometimes  used  to  prevent 
blowing  of  muck  soils  and  to  prevent  frost  injury  under  certain  conditions. 

The  cost  of  installing  an  overhead  irrigation  system  is  high,  and  there- 
fore is  justified  in  humid  regions  only  where  the  crops  to  be  grown  are 
high  priced.  Williams  (183)  makes  the  following  statement  regarding 
cost: 

The  cost  of  spray-irrigation  systems  depends  upon  the  type  installed  as  well  as 
upon  conditions  peculiar  to  each  farm.  A  portable  outfit  may  cost  as  little  as 
$50  per  acre  for  the  field  equipment,  while  a  stationary  distribution  system  may 
cost  as  much  as  1150  per  acre.  To  these  figures  must  be  added  the  cost  of  the 
main  pipe  line  leading  from  the  water  supply  and  of  installing  a  pumping  system. 
These  additional  items  may  bring  the  total  outlay  per  acre  up  to  two  or  three 
times  the  cost  of  the  distribution  system,  especially  on  small  acreage.  Assuming 
a  cost  of  $250  per  acre  on  a  stationary  plant  for  a  small  acreage,  the  farmer  should 
be  able  to  increase  his  annual  returns  to  cover  the  following  charges: 

6  per  cent  interest  on  $250 $15 .  00 

5  per  cent  depreciation  on  equipment 12.50 

2  per  cent  maintenance  and  repairs 5 .  00 

Cost  of  fuel  oil  at  4  cents  per  1,000  gallons  of   water  pumped   for  6 

acre-inches 6 .  50 

Labor  in  irrigating,  1  man  6  days  at  $2 12 .  00 

Total  overhead  and  operating  expenses $51 .00 

To  reahze  a  fair  profit  from  the  irrigation  plant,  the  crops  must  increase  the 
value  something  more  than  $51  per  acre. 

Of  course,  the  costs  of  the  materials  and  labor  vary  from  time  to  time. 
The  amount  of  water  to  be  applied  also  influences  the  cost  of  operation 
and  the  figures  given  refer  to  6  acre-inches  per  year,  the  amount  normally 
needed  in  the  Atlantic  Coast  states.  In  arid  regions  much  more  water 
is  required. 

Amount  of  Water  Required. — The  amount  of  water  required  depends 
upon  the  use  to  which  the  irrigation  is  put;  the  amount  and  distribution 
of  rainfall;  the  character  of  the  soil;  and  the  crops  grown.     For  seed 


IRRIGATION  93 

beds  in  humid  regions  3^^  inch  is  often  sufficient  at  each  appHcation  and  in 
maturing  garden  crops  3^^  to  1  inch  may  be  apphed.  Gardeners  in 
humid  regions  do  not  average  over  6  irrigations  per  year,  therefore,  a 
6-inch  supply  of  water  for  the  growing  season  would  be  sufficient.  A 
sandy  soil  requires  more  water  than  heavier  soils  and  long-season  crops 
need  more  irrigation  than  short-season  crops. 

According  to  Williams  sufficient  water  to  cover  the  land  to  the  depth 
of  1  inch  per  week  in  humid  climates  and  13^^  inches  per  week  in  arid 
regions  is  believed  to  be  safe  for  designing  purposes.  One  acre-inch 
equals  27,152  U.  S.  Gallons. 

Installing  an  Overhead  System. — Williams  (183)  gives  the  following 
directions  regarding  the  installation  of  a  permanent  overhead  spray 
system : 

Each  overhead  spi-ay  plant  should  be  modeled  to  fit  the  field  and  conditions 
under  which  it  is  to  operate.  Assuming  that  water  supply  has  been  developed, 
there  are  three  major  parts  to  any  system  which  should  be  considered  in  the  order 
given.  First,  type  and  location  of  nozzle  lines;  second,  type  and  location  of  main 
feed  pipe:  third,  type  and  location  of  pumping  plant.  The  nozzle  lines  should 
take  the  direction  most  desirable  to  cultivate  the  field,  so  that  the  crop  rows 
will  be  parallel  to  the  rows  of  supports.  In  general,  nozzle  lines  should  run  per- 
pendicular to  the  main  feed  pipe.  The  entire  field  system  should  be  designed  to 
use  the  minimum  amount  of  large  pipe,  which  generally  means  to  run  the  main 
as  straight  as  possible,  keeping  the  nozzle  lines  in  sizes  not  to  exceed  1  V2-iiich  pipe. 

The  size  of  pipe  to  use  in  a  nozzle  line  depends  upon  the  length.  The  end 
connecting  with  the  feed  pipe  must  be  sufficiently  large  to  carry  the  full  head  of 
water.  As  the  water  is  diminished  by  each  nozzle  the  pipe  can  be  reduced  in 
size,  finishing  with  a  ^:4-inch  pipe  at  the  extreme  end. 

Nozzle  lines  are  spaced  such  distances  apart  as  will  best  fit  the  field  within  a 
range  of  50  to  56  feet.  The  type  of  nozzle  line  depends  principally  upon  the 
method  used  for  supporting  the  pipe.  The  three  popular  methods  are:  On  tall 
posts,  on  short  posts,  or  on  cables  suspended  from  high  posts. 

When  tall  posts  are  used  they  are  set  in  the  ground  2>2  to  3  feet  and  cut  off 
about  6)^  feet  above  the  ground.  These  posts  are  spaced  15  to  20  feet  apart  and 
the  nozzle  line  placed  on  the  tops  in  roller  bearings  in  the  case  of  long  lines  and 
between  nails  in  short  fines.  If  the  post  is  of  wood  it  should  be  not  lighter  than 
4  by  5  inches,  but  a  round  post  5  to  6  inches  in  diameter  will  serve  as  well.  A 
more  durable  but  expensive  post  can  be  made  from  a  1-  or  IJ-^-inch  steel  pipe  set 
in  a  base  of  concrete  6  inches  in  diameter  and  2  feet  deep.  Special  concrete 
posts  also  make  excellent  supports. 

Where  wooden  posts  are  used  it  is  advisable  to  treat  the  part  going  into  the 
ground  with  a  good  grade  of  paint,  tar,  or  creosote,  to  help  preserve  the  wood. 
The  treatment  should  extend  6  inches  above  the  ground  surface. 

The  tall  posts  permit  the  passing  of  horses  or  men  under  the  pipe  and  obviate 
obstruction  to  cultivation.  This  is  the  most  popular  method  and  makes  a  good 
appearance  when  the  posts  are  carefully  lined  and  cut  off  at  the  tops  so  that  the 
pipe  will  lie  straight,  or  uniformly  curved  with  the  surface  of  the  ground. 


94  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

If  short  posts  are  used  they  are  set  in  the  ground  2  to  2>^  feet  and  cut  off  1  to 
3  feet  above  the  surface.  They  are  spaced  18  to  20  feet  apart  and  the  nozzle 
line  placed  on  top  between  nails  or  in  roller  bearings.  A  4  by  4-inch  post  serves 
well  for  this  type,  but  should  be  treated  as  are  tall  posts.  This  construction  is 
the  least  expensive  but  may  cause  a  somewhat  closer  spacing  of  nozzle  Hues  if 
a  low  hydrauhc  pressure  is  to  be  used.  This  type  also  is  somewhat  in  the  way  of 
cultivation  and  is  not  efficient  for  tall-growing  crops  When  nozzle  lines  are 
made  portable  on  short  posts,  posts  may  be  made  of  ^^-inch  pipe  sharpened  and 
fastened  to  the  nozzle  line  so  that  supports  are  moved  with  the  pipe. 

Where  high  posts  and  cable  suspension  is  used  the  posts  are  spaced  from  100  to 
200  feet  apart  and  the  nozzle  line  suspended  from  a  tight  cable  or  wire  strand  which 
takes  the  form  of  a  catenary  curve  between  posts.  Telephone  poles  8  to  10 
inches  at  the  base  and  6  to  8  inches  at  the  top  can  be  used.  A  length  of  2>^-inch 
steel  pipe  which  may  be  filled  with  concrete  makes  a  more  substantial  post. 
Wooden  posts  or  black-steel  posts  should  be  painted  with  tar  or  treated  witli 
creosote.  The  posts  should  be  considerably  higher  than  the  nozzle  fine  depend- 
ing upon  the  distance  between  posts  and  the  weight  to  be  supported.  It  is  well 
to  set  the  bases  of  the  posts  in  beds  of  concrete  about  18  inches  in  diameter  and  3 
feet  deep.  The  end  posts  and  cables  must  be  well  anchored  with  guys  fastened 
to  wooden  or  concrete  ''deadmen."  A  5-foot  anchor  rod  should  be  attached  to 
the  deadman  and  extended  above  the  surface  with  an  eye  where  a  turnbuckle 
and  a  guy  wire  can  be  attached.  Single  guys  are  used  where  the  tops  of  the  end 
posts  of  several  lines  can  be  connected  with  a  guy  wire  perpendicular  to  the  nozzle 
lines,  otherwise  double  guys  should  be  used.  The  deadman  should  be  at  least  a 
distance  equal  to  one-third  the  height  of  the  post  from  the  post's  base. 

The  weight  of  cable  to  use  for  each  particular  case  should  be  determined  by  an 
engineer  famiUar  with  this  construction  after  he  has  been  given  the  length  of  the 
line,  the  weight  to  be  supported,  and  the  spacing  of  posts.  The  manufacturers 
of  cables  are  prepared  to  recommend  necessary  size  and  kind  of  cable.  It  is  well 
to  use  double  galvanized  materials,  which  will  be  lasting.  The  pipe  is  suspended 
from  the  cable  with  short  lengths  of  about  No.  14  galvanized  wire  spaced  15  to  18 
feet  apart.  The  nozzle  fine  is  hung  in  special  galvanized-metal  hooks  containing 
rollers  to  make  the  pipe  turn  easily,  and  an  eye  for  attaching  to  the  suspension 
wire.  The  nozzle  fine  can  be  graded  by  adjusting  the  lengths  of  the  suspension 
wires. 

The  chief  advantage  in  the  suspension  system  is  the  reduction  of  obstruction 
in  the  field,  and  where  it  is  well  constructed  the  plant  will  be  very  durable.  This 
type  costs  more  than  the  others  and  is  not  as  commonly  used  as  the  simple  post 
supports.  The  cleaning  of  nozzles  on  highly  supported  lines  is  difficult,  so  the 
pipe  should  be  kept  within  reach. 

The  pipe  in  the  nozzle  lines  should  be  galvanized  wrought  iron  or  steel.  The 
galvanizing  not  only  makes  the  system  longer  lived,  but  reduces  oxidation  of 
the  metal,  which,  if  not  prevented,  tends  to  form  scales  that  fill  the  nozzles. 

A  nozzle  line  is  connected  with  the  main  feed  pipe  by  means  of  a  riser  cut  the 
proper  length  to  act  as  the  first  post  in  the  line.  In  the  longer  fines  it  is  well  to 
have  the  riser  of  fi-^-inch  pipe,  which  will  make  a  strong  support  even  if  this  is 
larger  than  the  first  section  of  nozzle  line.  An  elbow  is  placed  on  top  of  the  riser, 
and  into  thisis  screwedalong^nipple  wliicli  lerminates  in  a  standard  brass  gate 


IRRIGATION  95 

valve.  To  reduce  friction  this  valve  should  be  of  the  same  size  as  the  standpipe. 
The  turning  union  is  screwed  into  the  opposite  side  of  the  valve.  The  union 
most  commonly  used  contains  a  screen  for  catching  sediment  from  the  passing 
water.  A  capped  handle  2  feet  long,  made  of  ^4-inch  pipe,  is  screwed  into  the 
side  of  the  union.  This  serves  as  a  lever  for  turning  the  nozzle  line  in  its  bearing 
as  well  as  giving  entrance  to  the  union  for  flushing  the  screen. 

Reducing  couplings  and  not  bushings  should  be  used  for  connecting  the 
different  pipe  sizes.  A  ^^-inch  valve  or  a  cap  should  be  placed  over  the  extreme 
end  of  the  nozzle  line.  This  permits  flushing  out  the  line  at  any  time  by  opening 
the  valve  or  removing  the  cap. 

There  are  several  kinds  of  pipe  adaptable  for  spray  irrigation  mains,  steel,  or 
wrought  iron  with  threaded  joints,  riveted  steel  with  flanged  or  bolted  joints, 
cast  iron  with  lead  or  bolted  joints  and  wood-stave  pipe. 

Since  the  designing  of  an  overhead  system  requires  considerable 
engineering  ability  it  is  best  to  have  experts  do  this  part  of  the  work. 
There  are  firms  specializing  in  irrigation  systems  and  these  can  furnish 
the  plan  and  design. 


CHAPTER  XII 
ROTATION,  SUCCESSION  AND  INTERCROPPING 

ROTATION 

The  term  rotation  as  applied  to  crop  production  may  be  defined  as  a 
systematic  arrangement  for  the  growing  of  different  crops  in  a  more  or 
less  regular  sequence  on  the  same  land.  Crop  rotation  differs  from 
succession  cropping  in  that  the  former  covers  a  period  of  years,  2,  3  or 
more,  while  the  latter  refers  to  the  growing  of  two  or  more  crops  succes- 
sively on  the  same  land  in  1  year.  Systematic  crop  rotation  is  not  as 
common  in  vegetable  growing  as  in  general  farming.  Rotation  is,  how- 
ever, important  in  vegetable  growing  and  should  be  practiced  as  system- 
atically as  possible. 

Advantages  of  Crop  Rotation. — Among  the  most  important  advan- 
tages of  crop  rotation  are:  (1)  Aids  in  the  control  of  insects  and  diseases; 
(2)  equalizes  the  drain  on  the  supply  of  raw  materials  in  the  soil;  (3)  pre- 
vents or  reduces  injury  caused  by  poisonous  substances  in  the  soil;  (4) 
utilizes  more  thoroughly  farm  manures,  remains  of  previous  crops  and  com- 
mercial fertilizers;  (5)  systematizes  gardening  and  (6)  keeps  the  soil  in 
better  physical  condition  than  is  the  case  in  any  one-crop  system  of 
farming.  There  are  many  other  advantages  that  might  be  gained  by  crop 
rotation  under  certain  conditions,  but  those  mentioned  are  the  outstanding 
ones. 

Relation  to  Diseases  and  Insects. — Many  important  plant 
diseases  can  be  controlled  in  a  practical  way  by  systematic  crop  rota- 
tion in  which  the  host  plant  occupies  the  same  land  not  more  than 
once  in  3  or  4  years.  This  method  is  effective  mainly  on  those 
diseases,  the  spores  of  which  live  only  a  short  time.  Club  root  of 
cabbage  and  turnips  can  be  controlled  by  keeping  the  land  free  of 
cruciferous  plants  for  2  years.  Other  diseases  such  as  potato  scab 
and  onion  smut  cannot  be  controlled  by  ordinary  rotation  since  the 
organisms  responsible  for  these  diseases  live  longer  in  the  soil  than 
the  organisms  responsible  for  club  root.  When  a  crop  is  seriously 
diseased  it  should  be  followed  by  other  crops  which  are  not  attacked 
by  the  same  disease. 

Many  insects  can  be  kept  in  check  by  crop  rotation  and  the  same 
general  principles  should  be  followed  as  in  a  rotation  for  disease  control. 
Some  insects  feed  on  only  one  crop,  while  others  feed  on  a  few  closely 
related  crops.     In  either  case  a  suitable  crop   rotation   will  be  found 

96 


ROTATION,  SUCCESSION  AND  INTERCROPPING 


97 


of  value,  for  if  the  host  plants  are  not  near  at  hantl  when  the  insects 
emerge  in  the  spring  many  will  perish  before  reaching  them.  This  is 
especially  true  of  insects  which  travel  only  short  distances. 

Relation  to  Mineral  Nutrients. — Crops  vary  widely  in  their 
nutrient  requirements.  Some  crops,  utilize  relatively  large  quantities 
of  nitrogen,  while  others  use  relatively  large  quantities  of  phosphorus 
and  potash.  It  is  desirable  to  plan  the  rotation  so  as  to  have  foliage 
crops  followed  by  root  crops,  or  crops  grown  for  their  fruit,  such  as 
tomatoes.  Through  rotation  manures  and  fertilizers  are  more  thor- 
oughly utiHzed  than  where  the  one-crop  system  is  followed.  This  is 
especially  true  where  crops  with  different  requirements  are  grown  in 
the  rotation. 

Hartwell  and  Damon  (67)  have  shown  that  there  is  a  great  difference 
in  the  influence  different  crops  have  on  those  which  follow.  While 
they  have  not  shown  conclusively  what  factors  are  responsible  for  these 
differences  the  amount  of  nutrients  removed  from  the  soil  is  undoubtedly 
one  factor.  They  report  the  results  of  yields  of  onions  in  1910  following 
sixteen  different  crops  grown  in  1908  and  1909.  All  of  the  crops  were 
fertilized  ahke  and  the  materials  suppKed  50  pounds  nitrogen,  90  pounds 
phosphoric  acid  (P2O5)  and  150  pounds  potassium  (K2O)  per  acre  in 
1908.  In  1909  the  phosphoric  acid  was  reduced  to  60  pounds  and  the 
potassium  to  120  pounds.  In  1910  all  of  the  plats  produced  onions  and 
the  same  fertihzer  was  used  as  in  1909.  The  yields  of  onions  following 
the  miscellaneous  crops  as  reported  in  Rhode  Island  Bull.  175  are  given 
in  Table  XII. 


Table  XII. — Yields  of  Onions  in  Bushels  per  Acre  in  1910  Following  Miscel- 
laneous Crops  Grown  in  1908  and  1909 

(From  R.  I.  Bull.  175) 


Plat 

Crop  grown  in  1908 
and  1909 

Total 
yield  of 

onions 

per  acre 

1910 

Plat 

Crop  grown  in  1908 
and  1909 

Total 
yield  of 

onions 

per  acre 

1910 

85 

Onions 

289 

110 

72 

99 

88 

112 

286 

319 

346 

94 
95 
96 
97 

98 

99 
100 

Rye,  spring 

187 

86 

Timothy  and  redtop. .  . 

Redtop 

Timothy             

515 

87 
88 

Beets,  mangels 

Turnips,  rutabaga 

Cabbage 

524 
362 

89 

Clover,  red  and  alsike . . 

90 

Squashes  1909 362 

91 

Clover,  alsike 415 

92 
93 

Millet,  Golden 

Oats 

Clover,  red 

!       249 

98 


VEGETABLE  CROPS 


It  will  be  noticed  that  the  yield  of  onions  was  low  following  mangel 
beets,  cabbage,  turnips,  buckwheat,  potatoes  and  rye  and  high  following 
redtop,  timothy  and  redtop,  and  alsike  clover.  The  authors  do  not  state 
what  they  think  caused  these  great  differences  in  yields,  but  give  addi- 
tional data  which  throw  some  light  on  the  subject  from  the  standpoint 
of  nutrients  removed  by  some  of  the  crops  grown  in  1909.  Table  XIII 
(R.  I.  Bull.  175,  p.  24)  shows  the  amount  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and 
potassium  removed  per  acre  by  the  crops  grown  in  1909  prior  to  the 
growing  of  onions  on  the  entire  area. 


Table  XIII. 


-Nitrogen  Phosphorus  and   Potash   Removed  by   the   Several 
Crops 


Nitrogen, 
lb. 


P2OB, 
lb. 


K2O, 
lb. 


Onions 49 . 4 

Beets,  roots  and  tops 85 . 4 

Buckwheat  (two  crops) |  80.4 

Rye  (two  crops) |  45 . 5 

Redtop !  27.5 


13.5 
11.2 
21.8 
14.2 
11.7 


30.3 
80.3 
82.6 
63.8 
57.3 


It  had  been  found  that  potassium  was  not  deficient  but  that  nitrogen 
and  phosphorus  were  decidedly  lacking  in  the  soil  where  the  onions  were 
grown.  The  lowest  yields  of  onions  were  produced  following  beets  and 
buckwheat  which  removed  the  largest  amount  of  the  deficient  nutrients 
and  the  highest  yield  of  onions  followed  redtop  which  removed  the 
smallest  amount  of  nitrogen  and  phosphorus. 

The  yield  of  buckwheat  did  not  follow  in  the  same  order  as 
onions. 

The  authors  state  that  it  was  not  universally  true  that  the  crops  which 
removed  the  largest  amount  of  nutrients  were  the  ones  which  had  the 
most  depressing  effect  on  a  succeeding  crop. 

In  later  work  Hartwell,  Pember  and  Merkle  (60)  studied  the  effect 
of  crop  plants  on  those  which  follow  by  growing  the  plants  in  pots  in  the 
greenhouse.  Five  crops  were  used:  Buckwheat,  mangels,  rye,  onions  and 
redtop.  Fertilizers  were  applied  in  super-optimum  and  optimum 
amounts  and  with  the  latter  from  which  potassium,  phosphorus  or 
nitrogen  was  omitted.  The  authors  conclude  that  "The  divergent 
effect  of  crops  on  those  which  follow  seems  not'  to  be  attributable,  at 
least  principally,  to  differences  in  the  amount  of  nutrients  removed 
by  the  crops  grown  previously;  that  is  the  smallest  yield  may  not  occur 
after  the  crop  which  removed  the  largest  amount  of  even  the  most 
needed  nutrient." 


ROTATION,  SUCCESSION  AND  INTERCROPPING  99 

The  soil  acidity  was  affected  differently  by  the  several  crops  and  generally, 
the  best  yields  of  the  onion,  a  plant  which  is  sensitive  to  conditions  accompanying 
acidity,  followed  the  crops  giving  rise  to  the  least  acidity.  These  indications 
assume  added  importance  because  of  the  observed  fact  that  the  effects  of  the  crops 
on  those  which  follow  were  mucli  less  divergent  if  the  soil  acidity  was  reduced  by 
liming. 

Vegetable  growers  report  various  instances  of  reduced  yields  of  some 
crops  following  certain  plants.  It  is  the  belief  among  muck  soil  truckers 
that  carrots  have  a  depressing  effect  on  onions,  celery  and  lettuce. 
Cabbage  is  reported  to  depress  the  yield  of  corn,  that  is,  the  yield  is 
lower  following  cabbage  than  when  corn  follows  corn. 

Relation  of  Rotation  to  Injurious  Substances. — The  benefits 
derived  from  rotation  of  crops  cannot  be  accounted  for  entirely  on  the 
basis  of  the  factors  that  have  been  discussed.  Experiments  conducted 
by  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  and  by  some  of  the 
experiment  stations  indicate  that  the  roots  of  some  plants  give  off  sub- 
stances which  are  injurious  to  themselves.  These  substances  may  or 
may  not  be  injurious  to  other  plants. 

Hartwell,  et  al  have  pointed  out  that  there  is  a  difference  in  soil 
acidity  following  the  growing  of  different  crops  and  that  this  affects  the 
yield  of  onions.  While  there  is  very  little  proof  that  plant  roots  exude 
toxic  substances  which  injure  vegetables  the  principle  should  be  consid- 
ered when  planning  rotation.  The  effect  of  crops  on  those  which  follow 
should  be  given  consideration  regardless  of  the  cause  or  causes  of  the 
differences  observed. 

Order  of  Crop  Rotation. — While  it  is  impossible  to  outline  a  definite 
order  of  rotation  that  should  be  followed  under  all  conditions  it  is 
desirable  to  observe  the  following:  (1)  Alternate  shallow-rooted  and 
deep-rooted  crops;  (2)  follow  crops  which  furnish  organic  matter 
with  those  which  favor  its  rapid  decomposition;  (3)  vary  the  crops  in 
rotation  as  much  as  possible  in  respect  to  the  kinds  and  amount  of  nutri- 
ents required,  character  of  root  growth  and  the  time  of  year  during  which 
they  occupy  the  soil;  (4)  allow  as  much  time  as  practicable  for  the 
growing  of  soil-improving  crops. 

In  many  truck  growing  regions,  where  land  values  are  not  high,  vege- 
tables are  often  grown  in  rotation  with  general  field  crops.  Clover  or 
some  other  leguminous  forage  crop  often  precedes  the  vegetable  crop  in 
the  rotation.  Where  farm  crops  are  not  grown,  the  rotation  practice 
varies  widely  and  in  many  instances  no  definite  system  is  followed.  When 
practicable  it  is  desirable  to  plant  a  winter  cover  crop  on  all  land  under 
cultivation.  In  the  South  a  summer  cover  crop  of  cowpeas,  soybeans, 
or  other  legume  often  follows  early  vegetables  and  this  is  turned  under  in 
time  for  a  fall  crop. 


100  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

The  vegetable  grower  must  take  into  consideration  the  profits  derived 
from  various  crops  and  the  suitabihty  of  his  soil  to  the  production  of 
different  crops  in  planning  his  rotation.  Under  all  conditions  it  is  wise 
to  avoid  growing  one  crop  on  the  same  land  for  several  years. 

SUCCESSION  CROPPING 

Succession  cropping  is  the  growing  of  two  or  more  crops  successively 
on  the  same  land  in  one  season.  For  success  this  requires  heavy  fertili- 
zation and  good  cultural  practices.  On  high-priced  land  it  is  necessary 
to  keep  the  land  occupied  with  a  money  crop  a  large  part  of  the  year  and, 
by  planning  the  cropping  system  carefully,  two,  three  or  four  crops  may 
be  grown  on  the  same  land  in  one  season.  The  kind  and  number  of 
crops  to  be  grown  are  determined  largely  by  the  length  of  the  growing 
season  and  the  markets  to  be  supplied.  In  planning  for  a  succession  of 
crops  the  same  principles  should  be  considered  as  in  planning  a  rotation 
system.  As  examples  of  succession  cropping  the  following  might  be 
mentioned :  (a)  Early  lettuce  followed  by  snap  beans,  or  root  crops  such 
as  beets  and  carrots.  In  many  sections  the  crop  of  beans  may  be  fol- 
lowed by  fall  turnips  or  spinach;  (b)  early  cabbage  followed  by  late 
potatoes,  where  the  growing  season  is  long  enough;  (c)  early  potatoes 
followed  by  late  cabbage;  (d)  early  carrots  followed  by  beans,  late  cab- 
bage or  late  celery;  (e)  early  lettuce  followed  by  late  celery.  This 
is  a  very  common  practice  on  muck  lands  in  some  sections  of  the 
North.  All  kinds  of  combinations  may  be  worked  out  but  each  grower 
must  plan  his  own  system  to  meet  his  needs.  He  should  plan  in  advance 
in  order  to  be  able  to  utilize  his  land  and  labor  to  best  advantage.  In 
all  cropping  systems  the  distribution  of  labor  through  the  season 
should  be  considered  carefully. 

INTERCROPPING  OR  COMPANION  CROPPING 

When  two  or  more  crops  are  grown  together  on  the  same  land  the 
system  is  known  as  intercropping  or  companion  cropping.  This  may 
embrace  succession  cropping  as  in  the  planting  of  cabbage,  lettuce  and 
radishes  at  the  same  time.  The  radishes  will  mature  and  be  removed 
first  and  then  lettuce  will  follow.  Both  will  be  out  of  the  way  before 
the  cabbage  needs  all  of  the  space.  Intercropping  is  followed  mainly  by 
intensive  market  gardeners  where  most  of  the  work  is  done  by  hand. 
Foreign  gardeners  arc  more  likely  to  follow  this  system  than  are  American 
gardeners. 

Advantages  and  Disadvantages. — The  main  advantages  are:  (1) 
Economy  of  space,  which  is  important  on  high-priced  land;  (2)  saving  in 
tillage,  as  the  same  plowing, .  harrowing  and  cultivating  serve  for  two 
or  more  crops;  (3)  better  utilization  of  mineral  nutrients,  the   surplus 


ROTATION,  SUCCESSION  AND  INTERCROPPING  101 

applied  to  one  crop  being  used  by  the  other;  (4)  increased  profits  from  the 
area  cultivated. 

The  main  disadvantages  of  intercropping  are:  (1)  Increased  amount 
of  hand  labor;  (2)  larger  demand  for  mineral  nutrients  and  moisture;  (3) 
greater  difficulty  encountered  in  spraying  for  insects  and  disease.  There 
is  also  danger  of  injuring  one  crop  when  another  is  being  harvested. 

For  intercropping  to  be  successful  an  abundant  supply  of  labor  must 
be  available  and  there  must  be  a  liberal  supply  of  manure.  It  is  not 
practicable,  under  most  conditions,  where  land  values  are  low  and  labor 
high  because  large  implements  cannot  be  used  successfully  under  most 
kinds  of  intercropping. 

In  planning  for  intercropping  the  grower  should  consider  the  time 
each  crop  is  to  be  planted,  the  time  each  is  to  mature,  the  habit  of  growth 
and  the  amount  of  space  each  crop  needs  at  various  stages  of  growth. 
The  supply  of  moisture  and  mineral  nutrients  in  their  relation  to  maturity 
should  also  be  considered.  Where  irrigation  is  practiced,  intercropping 
is  more  likely  to  be  successful  than  where  no  provision  is  made  for  arti- 
ficial watering. 

Examples  of  Intercropping. — Various  plans  of  intercropping  are  used 
by  market  gardeners.  In  nearly  all  plans  small  growing,  quick  maturing 
crops  are  planted  with  larger  and  later  maturing  crops.  One  common 
plan  is  to  plant  lettuce  between  the  rows  of  cabbage  plants  and  also  be- 
tween the  plants  in  the  row.  The  lettuce  plants  are  usually  started  in 
the  greenhouse  or  hotbed  and  mature  in  5  to  6  weeks  after  setting  in  the 
field.  Up  to  this  time  the  cabbage  plants  do  not  require  more  than  half 
of  the  space  given.  Another  plan  includes  radishes,  which  are  planted 
between  the  cabbage  and  lettuce  rows.  Radishes  and  carrots  are  often 
grown  together,  the  former  being  planted  between  the  rows  of  the  latter. 
Cabbage  and  tomatoes  are  often  grown  together,  early  cabbage  plants 
being  set  early  in  the  season  and  tomatoes  set  between  the  rows.  The 
rows  of  cabbage  plants  are  spaced  farther  apart  than  under  single  crop- 
ping. Intercropping  is  commonly  practiced  in  new  asparagus  beds  and 
in  all  kinds  of  fruit  plantings.  In  this  way  the  land  produces  money 
returns,  before  the  perennial  plants  reach  bearing  age.  The  grower 
should  at  all  times  consider  the  welfare  of  his  perennial  plants  in  any 
system  of  intercropping.  The  land  should  be  well  fertilized  in  order  to 
provide  for  both  crops,  and  the  perennial  plants  should  not  be  crowded. 


CHAPTER  XIII 
CONTROL  OF  DISEASES  AND  INSECTS 

Knowledge  of  control  measures  for  important  disease  and  insect  pests 
is  fundamental  to  successful  vegetable  growing  at  the  present  time.  Both 
diseases  and  insects  are  becoming  more  serious  due  to  the  more  intensive 
methods  of  gardening  and  the  bringing  in  of  new  pests  from  foreign  coun- 
tries. No  subjects,  taught  in  agricultural  colleges,  are  more  important 
for  the  student  interested  in  vegetable  gardening  than  entomology  and 
plant  patholog3^  Not  only  should  the  student  learn  the  methods  of 
control  but  he  should  be  able  to  recognize  common  insects  and  diseases  in 
the  field.  Essential  points  in  the  life  history  of  common  organisms  should 
be  known  in  order  that  control  measures  may  be  applied  intelligently. 

Since  practically  all  agricultural  colleges  are  giving  fundamental 
courses  in  entomology  and  plant  pathology  these  subjects  are  considered 
here  only  in  their  general  relation  to  vegetable  production. 

Importance  of  Controlling  Pests. — Insects  and  plant  diseases  cause 
losses  to  the  vegetable  growers  of  the  United  States  running  into  many 
miUions  of  dollars,  probably  into  the  hundreds  of  millions.  Exact  esti- 
mates are  impossible  because  there  are  so  many  factors  involved.  To 
estimate  the  percentage  of  crops  destroyed  and  then  figure  the  mone- 
tary loss  at  the  average  price  received  for  the  portion  saved  is  entirely 
misleading,  because  a  reduction  in  total  yield  nearly  always  has  the  effect 
of  increasing  the  price.  In  other  words,  a  short  crop  often  brings  a 
greater  total  return,  as  well  as  a  larger  net  return  than  a  very  large  yield. 
However,  if  insects  and  diseases  did  not  have  to  be  considered,  vegetable 
growers  could  more  accurately  plan  their  plantings  to  meet  the  consumers' 
needs.  They  now  make  allowances  for  probable  losses  due  to  insects  and 
diseases,  and  when  these  pests  do  not  cause  as  great  damage  as  expected 
there  is  usually  a  large  yield,  and  this  results  in  low  prices.  If,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  losses  are  greater  than  normal  the  crop  yields  are  low  and 
this  results  in  high  prices  to  the  consumer.  In  the  long  run  the  losses  due 
to  insects  and  diseases  must  be  borne  by  society.  The  cost  of  production 
is  greatly  increased  by  diseases  and  insects  because  of  the  reduced  yield 
due  to  their  ravages.  The  expense  of  control  measures  practiced  also 
adds  to  the  cost  to  the  consumer.  With  some  vegetable  crops  the  treat- 
ment for  diseases  and  insects  is  one  of  the  largest  items  in  the  cost  of 
production.     This  item  alone  adds  millions  of  dollars  each  year  to  the 

102 


CONTROL  OF  DISEASES  AND  INSECTS  103 

cost  of  food.  There  is  also  loss  due  to  reduction  in  quality,  for  vegetables 
that  are  badly  injured  by  insects  and  diseases  are  inferior  to  those  that 
are  not  injured. 

Up-to-date  vegetable  growers  recognize  that  in  many  instances 
spraying,  dusting  and  other  control  measures  are  just  as  essential  as 
cultivation  or  any  other  operation.  It  is  impossible  to  produce  satis- 
factory crops  of  certain  vegetables  in  many  regions  without  measures 
being  taken  to  control  diseases  or  insects  or  both.  Even  when  diseases 
are  not  so  serious  as  to  be  very  evident  on  casual  inspection  of  the  field  it 
has  been  found  that  spraj'ing  or  other  treatment  has  in  many  instances 
greatly  increased  the  yield.  Instances  are  on  record  where  the  yield  of 
celery  was  increased  by  60  crates  per  acre  by  spraying  for  blight,  although 
the  growers  stated  that  their  crops  were  not  blighted.  Onion  yields  have 
been  increased  200  to  400  bushels  per  acre  through  smut  treatment  where 
the  growers  claimed  that  their  crops  were  not  seriously  injured  by  this 
disease.  Many  other  illustrations  might  be  given  but  these  show  the 
importance  of  knowing  what  injury  is  being  done  by  diseases  and  insects. 
Wherever  crops  are  being  injured  by  pests  it  is  desirable  to  try  out  control 
measures  to  see  if  the  value  of  the  products  is  sufficiently  increased  to 
justify  the  expense  of  the  treatments  given. 

Methods  of  Control. — Among  the  means  of  controlling  insects  and 
diseases  the  following  are  important: 

1.  Rotation  of  Crops. — The  importance  of  crop  rotation  in  insect  and 
disease  control  is  discussed  in  Chapter  XII. 

2.  Destruction  of  Refuse  Harboring  Diseases  and  Insects. — Insects  of 
many  kinds  pass  the  winter  in  the  refuse  left  on  the  field  or  garden.  If 
this  is  plowed  under  most  of  the  insects  will  perish,  but  in  case  of  diseases, 
which  live  over  winter  on  the  plant  remains,  plowing  does  not  destroy 
them.  Some  insects  also  pass  the  winter  in  weeds  and  trash  in  the 
fence  rows  and  around  the  edges  of  the  field;  therefore  cleaning  up  these 
places  is  of  importance. 

3.  Fall  Plowing. — In  regions  where  severe  freezing  occurs  many  insects 
are  destroyed  by  exposing  the  larvae  or  hibernating  adults  to  the  weather 
by  plowing  the  land  in  the  fall.  The  exposure  to  changing  weather 
conditions  even  without  severe  freezing  destroys  many  insects  which  pass 
the  winter  in  the  soil.  The  disease  caused  by  the  nematode,  an  animal 
parasite,  is  not  serious  in  the  gardens  of  the  North  (but  is  a  pest  in  green- 
houses) because  the  severe  freezing  of  the  soil  kills  the  parasite. 

4.  Destruction  of  Affected  Plants. — This  is  an  aid  in  the  control  of  some 
diseases,  such  as  bacterial  wilt  of  cucumber  and  melons  by  preventing  the 
spread  of  the  disease.  Destruction  of  insects,  which  feed  on  the  plants 
is  also  important  since  they  spread  the  disease. 

5.  Abandoning  for  Two  or  Three  Years  Any  Crop  ^adly  Affected  by 
Pests. — This  may  be  cheaper  and  quicker  than  to  try  to  destroy  the  pest. 


104  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

Club  root  of  cabbage  and  cauliflower  can  be  controlled  in  this  way  pro- 
vided no  crop  affected  by  this  disease  is  grown  on  the  land  for  two  or  three 
years. 

6.  Protecting  Plants  by  Mechanical  Means  to  Prevent  Insect  Ravages. — 
The  most  common  method  is  to  exclude  the  insect  by  screening  the  plant 
or  seed  bed.  Individual  plants  and  hills  of  cucumbers  and  melons  are 
often  covered  with  cheese  cloth  tacked  on  a  frame  or  with  a  cone-shaped 
screen  made  of  wire  netting  to  protect  the  crop  against  injury  by  the 
cucumber  beetle.  Screening  the  late  cabbage  seed  bed  with  cheese 
cloth  prevents  injury  by  the  cabbage  maggot.  The  screen  prevents  the 
fly  from  depositing  eggs  on  the  seedlings,  or  on  the  soil. 

7.  Use  of  Trap  Crops  in  Controlling  Insects. — The  harlequin  cabbage- 
bug  can  be  kept  in  check  by  planting  kale,  mustard,  or  rape  so  that  the 
plants  will  be  available  to  the  insects  before  the  desired  crop  is  up.  The 
bugs  will  congregate  on  the  trap  crops  where  they  may  be  killed  by 
spraying  with  pure  kerosene.  In  the  fall  a  few  plants  of  turnips, 
cabbage  or  kale  left  in  the  field  after  the  main  portion  of  the  crop  has 
been  harvested,  will  attract  the  bugs  which  may  be  killed  before  going 
into  hibernation. 

8.  Seed  Treatment  to  Control  Insects  and  Diseases. — Seed  potatoes  are 
treated  with  corrosive  subHmate  for  potato  scab  and  rhizoctonia.  This 
treatment  destro3^s  the  organisms  on  the  surface  of  the  tubers.  Formalin 
is  also  used  for  potato  scab.  Treatment  of  cabbage  seed  with  corrosive 
sublimate  and  with  hot  water  is  recommended  for  black-leg.  Seed 
treatment  is  of  little  avail  if  the  soil  in  which  the  treated  seeds  are  to  be 
planted  is  infested  with  disease  organisms. 

Bean  and  pea  weevils  can  be  kept  under  control  by  treating  the  dry 
seed  with  carbon  disulfid.  To  be  most  effective  the  treatment  should 
be  made  in  the  fall  soon  after  the  harvest  since  the  insects  develop  in  the 
dry  seeds. 

9.  Soil  Sterilization. — Diseases  in  plant  beds  and  in  vegetable  forcing 
houses  are  kept  under  control  by  sterilizing  the  soil  by  means  of  steam 
or  formalin.  Steam,  when  properly  used,  kills  insects  and  weed  seeds  in 
the  soil  as  well  as  diseases.  The  methods  of  steam  sterilization  commonly 
used  are  the  steam  box,  the  inverted  pan  and  the  perforated  pipe.  Soil 
for  seed  boxes  is  often  sterilized  in  a  steam  box,  but  this  method  is  not 
very  practicable  where  a  large  quantity  is  to  be  treated.  By  the  inverted 
pan  method  a  large  galvanized  pan  (6  by  10  feet)  about  6  inches  deep  is 
pressed  down  over  the  soil  to  be  steriUzed.  The  pan  is  connected  to  a 
steam  boiler  by  means  of  pipe  or  rubber  hose.  In  the  perforated  pipe 
method  13^^-  or  l)^-inch  pipe,  with  3-^-inch  holes  on  the  under  side  at 
intervals  of  12  inches  is  placed  in  the  soil  8  to  12  inches  deep.  The 
lines  of  pipes  should  be  about  18  inches  apart  and  connected  to  a  steam 
boiler.     The  soil  should  be  heated  to  near  the  boiling  point  and  kept 


CONTROL  OF  DISEASES  AND  INSCETS  105 

there  for  1  to  2  hours.  A  few  potatoes  placed  on  the  surface  of  the  soil 
will  indicate  the  thoroughness  of  the  treatment.  When  the  potatoes 
are  cooked  the  soil  is  well  sterilized. 

10.  Fumigation. — This  is  a  common  method  of  controlling  insects  in 
the  greenhouse.  Various  kinds  of  tobacco  preparations,  sulphur  and 
hydrocyanic  acid  gas  are  the  most  common  fumigants.  The  last  men- 
tioned is  a  deadly  poison  which  will  kill  all  kinds  of  animal  life;  therefore 
it  should  be  used  with  the  utmost  care. 

11.  Use  of  Repella7its. —Tlsinis  are  sometimes  protected  from  insect 
injury  by  means  of  materials  which  repel  the  pests.  Slaked  lime,  dry 
ashes,  dust  and  other  similar  substances  are  often  used  to  repel  cucumber 
beetles.  Bordeaux  mixture  is  used  for  protecting  plants  against  flea 
beetles,  the  foliage  being  thoroughly  coated  with  the  material.  Tarred 
paper  discs  are  sometimes  used  around  cabbage  plants  to  prevent  the 
adult  of  the  cabbage  maggot  from  depositing  eggs  on  the  plant.  The 
repellants  do  not  destroy  nor  injure  the  insects,  but  prevent  them  from 
attacking  the  plants. 

12.  Killing  Insects  and  Preventing  Disease  Injury  by  Spraying  and 
Dusting.— Insects  are  classified  into:  (1)  Chewing  or  biting  forms,  which 
devour  the  leaves  and  other  parts  of  the  plants;  and  (2)  sucking  forms 
which  injiu-e  and  destroy  plants  by  sucking  their  juices.  For  biting  or 
chewing  insects  stomach  poisons  are  used,  arsenicals  being  the  most  com- 
mon. For  sucking  insects  contact  poisons,  such  as  kerosene  emulsion 
and  tobacco  sprays  are  used. 

Many  fungous  diseases  are  controlled  by  spraying  the  plants  with  a 
mixture  poisonous  to  the  fungus  but  harmless  to  the  plant.  In  spraying 
for  disease  control  the  material  should  be  applied  before  the  disease 
appears,  for  most  treatments  prevent  the  development  and  spread  of 
the  fungus  rather  than  destroy  it  after  it  has  once  secured  a  foothold  on 
the  plant.  Spraying  before  a  rain  is  preferable  to  applying  the  material 
after  a  rain,  since  the  spores  germinate  best  under  moist  conditions.  Of 
course,  the  spray  material  should  be  applied  far  enough  in  advance  to 
allow  it  to  dry  before  rains. 

Timeliness  and  Thoroughness.— In  all  insect  and  disease-control 
measures  timeliness  and  thoroughness  are  important  considerations. 
For  instance  the  fungicide  should  be  applied  before  the  appearance  of 
the  diseases  or  at  least  as  soon  as  there  is  the  slightest  evidence.  It  is 
too  late  to  control  diseases  after  they  have  seriously  injured  the  crops. 
Even  for  insect  control,  treatment  is  most  effective  when  the  material 
is  applied  as  soon  as  the  insects  make  their  appearance.  If  the  treatment 
is  delayed  too  long  the  plants  may  be  seriously  injured  or  killed  before 
the  insects  are  destroyed.  This  is  especially  true  where  there  is  a  heavy 
infestation,  as  there  may  be  so  many  insects  present  as  to  do  considerable 
damage  before  getting  enough  poison  to  kill  them. 


106  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

Since  insects  arc  killed  either  by  eating  the  poison,  or  by  coming  into 
contact  with  it  and  disease  spores  are  killed  or  inhibited  by  contact  with 
the  fungicide,  it  is  important  to  cover  all  parts  of  the  plant  with  the  material. 
For  many  diseases  and  insects  the  underside  of  leaves,  as  well  as  the 
upperside,  should  be  covered.  Spray  materials  should  be  apphed  as  a 
fine  mist  so  as  to  cover  the  surface  thoroughly  without  having  the  liquid 
collect  in  drops  and  run  off.  To  get  a  fine  mist  high  pressure  is  necessary 
even  with  the  best  of  spray  nozzles. 

Spray  Pumps. — Various  kinds  and  sizes  of  sprayers  are  on  the  market, 
from  the  small  hand  atomizer  to  the  large  power  sprayers.  The  small 
sprayers  are  not  as  efficient  nor  as  economical  as  the  large  ones  so  that 
commercial  gardeners  should  secure  the  largest  one  that  is  practicable  for 
the  acreage  to  be  sprayed.  Under  most  conditions  nothing  smaller  than 
the  barrel  sprayer  should  be  purchased  by  the  commercial  grower.  Power 
sprayers  are  generally  used  for  such  crops  as  potatoes  and  celery.  Some 
of  these  get  their  power  from  gearing  the  pump  to  the  axle  of  the  sprayer, 
while  others  are  equipped  with  gasoline  engines.  Where  high  pressure  is 
important  the  engine-driven  pump  is  preferred. 

Insecticides. — There  are  three  general  types  of  insecticides,  stomach 
poisons,  contact  poisons  and  repellants.  Stomach  poisons  are  used  to 
destroy  biting  insects  such  as  potato  bugs  and  cabbage  worms.  Contact 
poisons  are  used  in  kilhng  sucking  insects,  such  as  plant  lice  and  squash 
bugs.  Repellants,  as  lime  and  tobacco  are  used  to  protect  plants  from 
injury  from  insects  which  are  not  readily  killed.  The  repellants  do  not 
kill  the  insects  but  are  often  effective  as  deterrents.  Bordeaux  mixture 
is  sometime  used  as  a  repellant  for  flea  beetles. 

Arsenate  of  Lead  and  the  Arsenicals. — Arsenate  of  lead  is  the  most 
valuable  and  usually  the  cheapest  of  the  stomach  poisons.  It  is  less  likely 
to  injure  foliage  than  Paris  green;  it  adheres  better  and  remains  longer  in 
suspension.  Arsenate  of  lead  is  available  in  either  powder  or  paste 
form.  Two  pounds  of  powder  or  4  pounds  of  paste  to  50  gallons  of  water 
is  the  usual  recommendation.  The  lead  may  be  used  with  Bordeaux 
mixture  without  reducing  the  effectiveness  of  either.  Arsenate  of  lead 
powder  may  be  applied  dry  by  mixing  it  with  slaked  lime  or  other  fine 
dry  material  in  the  proportion  of  1  part  of  the  lead  powder  to  5  to  10 
parts  of  lime  or  other  material.  To  be  most  effective  this  should  be 
applied  when  the  foliage  is  damp. 

For  years  in  many  regions  powdered  arsenate  of  lead  and  Paris  green 
have  been  used  in  the  dry  form  for  the  control  of  the  Colorado  potato 
beetle  and  other  chewing  insects.  With  the  manufacture  of  power 
dusting  machines  a  great  impetus  has  been  given  to  the  use  of  arsenicals 
and  other  insecticides  in  dust  form.  Results  of  experiments  in  Virginia, 
as  reported  by  Zimmerly,  Geise  and  WlUey  (190)  show  that  thorough  dust- 
ing of  potato  plants  with  20  per  cent  calcium  arsenate  dust  at  the  rate 


CONTROL  OF  DISEASES  AND  INSECTS  107 

of  20  pounds  to  the  acre  resulted  in  perfect  control  of  the  larvae  of  the 
potato  beetle.  In  their  experiments  with  dust  for  the  control  of  the  cab- 
bage looper  and  the  imported  cabbage  worm  on  kale  and  Brussels  sprouts 
a  mixture  of  50  per  cent  calcium  arsenate  and  a  material  called  Noburn 
(a  material  containing  about  23  per  cent  arsenious  oxide,  derived  chiefly 
from  Paris  green)  gave  equally  good  control.  They  state  that  the  action 
of  Noburn  was  more  rapid  than  that  of  calcium  arsenate. 

Tobacco  Preparations. — Nicotine,  the  poisonous  principle  of  tobacco 
is  a  powerful  contact  insecticide.  It  is  now  widely  used  in  the  form  of 
nicotine  sulphate  and  may  be  purchased  under  this  or  other  trade  names 
such  as  "Black-Leaf  40."  For  plant  lice  and  other  soft-bodied  insects, 
nicotine  sulphate  is  diluted  with  800  to  1,000  parts  of  water.  A  common 
spray  formula  is  ^s  pound  of  nicotine  sulphate  (40  per  cent)  and  2  pounds 
of  soap  to  50  gallons  of  water.  This  gives  1  part  nicotine  sulphate  to 
1,000  parts  of  water.  The  soap  is  used  largely  as  a  sticker  and  adds  to 
the  effectiveness  of  the  material.  Any  of  the  tobacco  preparations  can 
be  combined  with  Bordeaux  mixture  without  decreasing  the  efficiency  of 
cither  material. 

Nicotine  is  used  also  for  fumigating  greenhouses  to  destroy  insects 
either  by  smudging  with  moist  tobacco  stems,  various  kinds  of  punks 
and  papers  containing  nicotine,  or  by  evoporating  a  nicotine  extract. 

Tobacco  dust  has  been  used  as  an  insecticide  for  a  long  time,  but  it  is 
only  within  recent  years  that  the  prepared  material  containing  nicotine 
has  been  used  in  dust  form  for  insect  control.  The  carrier  most  commonly 
emploj^ed  is  hydrated  lime.  Experiments  with  this  material  have 
been  carried  on  by  several  investigators.  Parrott  (113)  has  reported 
on  results  secured  in  controlling  the  cabbage  aphis.  He  found  that  an 
application  of  20  pounds  of  a  2  per  cent  nicotine  preparation  to  the 
acre  was  the  most  satisfactory  from  the  standpoint  of  economy  and 
effectiveness. 

Zimmerly,  Geise  and  Willey  (190)  tested  various  carriers  of  nicotine 
including  hydrated  lime,  kieselgur  and  kaolin  and  they  all  proved  of 
equal  value  for  aphis  control.  Lime  is  the  cheapest  and  is  therefore 
recommended.  They  also  tried  various  percentages  of  nicotine  and  found 
that  the  3  per  cent  dust  proved  most  effective  in  the  control  of  spinach 
aphis,  the  pink  and  green  aphis,  the  cabbage  aphis  and  the  melon  aphis. 
In  the  laboratory  the  1,  2  and  3  per  cent  nicotine  dusts  killed  72.2, 
82.1  and  89.3  per  cent  respectively,  based  on  the  average  for  the  four 
species.  They  state  that  for  the  control  of  the  spinach  aphis  and  the 
pink  and  green  aphis  on  spinach,  a  hydrated  hme  carrier  with  2  per  cent 
nicotine-impregnated  dust  proved  the  most  economical.  The  quantity 
necessary  varied  from  20  to  40  pounds  to  the  acre. 

Fungicides. — The  term  fungicide  is  applied  to  any  material  used  to 
control  fungous  diseases.     Bordeaux  mixture  is  the  most  common  fungi- 


108  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

cide  used  as  a  spray  for  vegetables.  Dry  Bordeaux  is  being  used  to  a 
limited  extent  for  diseases  of  some  vegetable  crops.  Formalin,  corro- 
sive sublimate  and  sulphur  are  also  used  as  fungicides  but  these  are  not 
usuall}^  sprayed  on  the  plants. 

Bordeaux  Mixture. — The  most  common  formula  for  making 
Bordeaux  mixture  for  spraying  vegetables  is  4  pounds  of  copper  sulphate, 
4  pounds  of  stone  lime  to  50  gallons  of  water.  This  is  known  as  the  4-4- 
50  formula.  A.  stronger  mixture  is  made  by  using  5  pounds  of  copper 
sulphate  and  5  pounds  of  lime  to  50  gallons  of  water. 

Where  Bordeaux  mixture  is  to  be  used  in  large  quantities  it  is  desir- 
able to  make  up  stock  solutions  by  dissolving  50  pounds  of  copper  sul- 
phate in  50  gallons  of  water  so  that  a  gallon  of  the  liquid  will  contain  1 
pound  of  copper  sulphate.  If  more  convenient,  100  pounds  of  copper 
sulphate  may  be  dissolved  in  50  gallons  of  water  in  which  case  each  gallon 
of  solution  will  contain  2  pounds  of  copper  sulphate.  Stock  lime  mixture 
may  be  made  up  by  slaking  50  or  100  pounds  of  lump  lime  in  a  barrel  and 
adding  a  definite  amount  of  water  so  that  a  gallon  of  the  solution  will 
contain  a  known  amount  of  lime.  In  case  hydrated  lime  is  used  increase 
the  amount  to  6  pounds  for  each  50  gallons  of  Bordeaux  mixture. 

To  make  Bordeaux  mixture  of  the  4-4-50  formula  from  the  stock 
solutions  the  sprayer  is  usually  filled  about  three-fourths  full  of  water  and 
4  gallons  of  the  copper  sulphate  solution  is  added  to  every  50  gallons  of 
the  mixture  to  be  made.  The  stock  solution  should  be  stirred  before 
being  taken  out  and  the  water  in  the  sprayer  should  also  be  agitated  after 
adding  the  copper  sulphate.  The  lime  solution  is  then  added,  using 
enough  to  give  4  pounds  of  lime  to  each  50  gallons  of  the  mixture.  The 
lime-water  should  be  run  through  a  strainer  in  order  to  prevent  the  large 
particles  of  lime  from  getting  into  the  sprayer  tank.  While  pouring  the 
lime  solution  into  the  sprayer  the  material  in  the  tank  should  be  stirred 
constantly.     Water  is  then  added  to  fill  the  tank. 

To  test  the  mixture  dissolve  a  few  crystals  of  potassium  ferri cyanide 
in  a  pint  of  water  and  pour  a  few  drops  into  the  Bordeaux.  If  a  brown- 
colored  precipitate  forms  more  hme  is  needed  to  neutrahze  the  copper- 
sulphate.  Bordeaux  mixture  not  properly  neutralized  will  burn  the 
foliage  of  plants. 

Copper-lime  Dust. — Within  the  past  few  yearsthe  use  of  copper-lime 
dust  has  been  highly  advertised  by  companies  manufacturing  fungicides 
and  many  of  the  experiment  stations  have  undertaken  experiments  to 
determine  its  effectiveness  in  disease  control.  While  much  less  experi- 
mental work  has  been  done  to  determine  the  value  of  this  dust  for 
vegetable  diseases  than  for  fruit  diseases,  it  has  been  used  on  potatoes, 
celery,  cucumbers  and  other  vegetables.  Results  secured  in  controlhng 
celery  blight  in  New  York  indicate  that  copper-lime  dust,  properly 
applied,  gives  practically  as  good  control  as  liquid  Bordeaux  mixture. 


CONTROL  OF  DISEASES  AND  INSECTS  .  109 

However,  the  use  of  dust,  as  a  fungicide,  has  not  passed  the  experimental 
stage  and  is  not  generally  recommended. 

The  copper-lime  dust  is  used  in  the  proportion  of  15,  20  and  25  parts 
dehydrated  copper  sulphate  to  85,  80  and  75  parts  of  hydrated  lime  as  a 
carrier. 

Corrosive  Sublimate  (Mercuric  Chlorid). — One  ounce  of  corrosive 
sublimate  to  73^  or  8  gallons  of  water  makes  an  effective  fungicide  for 
treating  potatoes  and  sweet  potatoes  for  diseases  on  the  surface  of  the 
seed  and  is  an  effective  insecticide  for  cabbage  maggot.  This  material 
is  a  deadly  poison  and  should  be  used  with  the  greatest  of  care.  Corro- 
sive sublimate  solution  should  be  used  in  wooden  or  stone  vessels  as  it 
reacts  with  metal  and  thereby  looses  strength. 

Formalin. — This  is  a  commercial  preparation  containing  about  40 
per  cent  formaldehyde  gas  in  water.  One  pint  to  30  gallons  of  water  is 
the  formula  usually  used  for  treating  potato  tubers.  For  sterilizing  soil 
1  part  formalin  to  50  parts  of  water  is  considered  the  best,  although  a 
weaker  solution  (1  to  75  or  1  to  100)  is  sometimes  recommended. 

General  Crop  Diseases. — Among  the  more  serious  diseases  that  are 
rather  general,  the  most  important  are  root-knot,  caused  by  a  parasitic 
eelworm  or  nematode;  Rhizoctonia  which  causes  cankers  on  the  stems 
and  roots  of  various  plants;  and  dam  ping-off.  Root-knot  is  discussed  in 
connection  with  cabbage,  Chapter  XX,  and  Rhizoctonia  is  described  in 
Chapter  XXIII  in  connection  with  the  potato. 

Damping-off  is  often  serious  on  plants  in  the  seed  bed  and  transplant- 
ing bed.  The  plants  are  attacked  at  or  near  the  surface  of  the  ground 
causing  a  rotting  or  ''damping  off."  This  may  be  caused  by  any  one  of 
several  species  of  fungi  including  Pythium,  Rhizoctonia,  Botrytis, 
Sclerotinia,  Phoma,  Phj^ophthora,  Colletotrichum  and  Gloeosporium. 

Since  the  growth  of.  these  fungi  is  favored  by  moisture  and  relatively 
high  temperature,  the  trouble  may  be  checked  by  keeping  the  temperature 
down  and  withholding  water.  It  is  especially  important  to  water  the 
plants  in  the  bed  early  in  the  day  so  that  the  plants  themselves  and 
the  surface  of  the  soil  may  dry  before  night.  Thorough  ventilation  of 
the  greenhouse,  hotbed  and  cold  frame  is  important. 

Sterilizing  the  soil  used  for  the  plant  bed  by  means  of  steam  or  formalin 
will  destroy  the  fungi  if  the  work  is  done  thoroughly. 

General  Crop  Insects. — Insects  may  be  grouped  roughly  into  two 
classes,  from  the  standpoint  of  their  food  plants:  (1)  Those  which  ordi- 
narily attack  only  a  single  crop,  or  a  few  closely  related  crops,  and  (2) 
those  which  are  general  feeders  and  are  not  particular  as  to  their  food 
plants.  Examples  of  the  first  class  are  asparagus  beetles,'potato  beetle 
and  the  large  tomato  worm,  the  last  two  feeding  on  a  few  closely 
related  plants.  The  second  class  includes  cutworms,  white  grubs, 
wireworms,  blister  beetles,  grasshoppers,  onion  thrips,  and  red  spider. 


110  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

The  onion  thrips  is  usually  most  injurious  to  the  onion  crop  although  it 
attacks  cauliflower,  cabbage,  cucumbers,  tomatoes,  turnips  and  kale. 
This  insect  is  discussed  in  connection  with  the  onion  crop.  The  other 
insects  are  discussed  here  because  they  are  equally  destructive  to  a  number 
of  crops. 

Cutworms. — Cutworms  are  nearly  smooth  caterpillars  1  to  2  inches 
long,  the  larvae  of  large-bodied  moths.  Many  species  have  been  reported 
as  pests  of  vegetable  plants.  Their  greatest  injury  is  done  by  cutting  off 
the  stems  of  young  plants  near  the  surface  of  the  ground,  especially  to 
those  plants  which  are  transplanted  and  are  spaced  considerable  distances 
apart,  as  cabbage,  cauliflower,  tomato,  eggplant  and  sweet  potato.  Cut- 
worms work  mainly  at  night  and  one  worm  can  destroy  many  plants  in 
a  single  night. 

The  best  method  of  control  is  the  use  of  poisoned  baits.  A  common 
bait  is  made  with  the  following  materials: 

Bran 2Q  pounds 

Arsenate  of  lead  powder 1  pound 

Molasses 2  quarts 

Oranges  or  lemons 3  fruits 

Water 4  gallons 

The  dry  materials  are  mixed  thoroughly  in  a  tub  or  other  receptacle. 
The  juice  of  the  oranges  or  lemons  is  squeezed  into  the  water  and  the 
molasses  is  also  mixed  with  the  water,  then  a  mash  is  made.  After  the 
mash  has  stood  for  a  few  hours,  it  is  scattered  over  the  field  in  small 
lumps.  It  should  be  put  out  late  in  the  day  so  that  it  will  not  dry  out 
before  night.  The  bait  should  not  be  used  where  there  is  danger  of 
chickens  getting  it. 

Clean  cultural  methods  and  fall  plowing  also  aid  in  controlling  cut- 
worms. 

White  Grubs. — These  are  the  larvae  of  May  beetles  or  June  beetles 
{Lachnosterna  arcuata).  They  feed  chiefly  on  the  roots  or  other  under- 
ground portions  of  the  plants  and  are  often  injurious  to  corn,  potatoes, 
and  strawberries,  bvit  they  are  general  feeders.  Grubs  are  usually  most 
injurious  to  crops  following  sod. 

A  short  rotation  in  which  sod  is  left  not  more  than  two  years  is  advised. 
Clean  culture  and  plowing  in  the  fall  aid  in  the  control  of  this  pest.  Hogs 
and  chickens,  if  allowed  the  run  of  newly  plowed  land,  destroy  large 
numbers  of  the  grubs.  Where  they  are  abundant  in  sod  land  it  is  best 
not  to  use  it  for  potatoes  or  sweet  corn. 

WiREWORitis. — Wireworms  are  the  larvae  of  click  beetles.  They  are 
long,  hard-shelled,  brownish  larvae  often  abundant  in  sod  land.  They 
are  injunous  to  the  roots  and  other  underground  portions  of  the  plants, 
especially  to  potatoes,  carrots,  beets,  sweet  potatoes  and  onions- 


CONTROL  OF  DISEASES  AND  INSECTS  111 

The  remedies  advised  for  white  grubs  apply  to  wireworms,  but  they 
are  much  more  difficult  to  control. 

Grasshoppers. — These  insects  are  quite  troublesome  to  vegetables, 
especially  in  the  dry  regions  of  the  Middle  West.  Poisoned  bait  as 
recommended  for  cutworms  is  one  of  the  best  remedies  for  grasshoppers. 

Blister  Beetles. — These  insects  are  common  garden  pests  and  are 
often  destructive  to  beans,  peas,  potatoes  and  beets,  although  they  feed 
on  many  kinds  of  plants.  The  beetles  are  slender,  somewhat  soft  bodied 
and  variously  colored.  They  are  injurious  in  the  adult  stage  and  are 
difficult  to  control. 

Spraying  with  arsenicals  when  the  beetles  first  appear  is  the  best 
remedy. 

Red  Spider. — The  red  spider  {Tetranychus  telarius)  is  not  a  true 
spider  but  a  mite.  It  is  well-distributed  and  is  often  injurious  on  beans 
of  all  kinds,  eggplant,  cucumbers  and  other  cucurbits,  tomatoes,  beets 
and  celery.  It  is  a  serious  greenhouse  pest.  It  is  often  present  on  the 
underside  of  leaves  without  being  suspected.  It  injures  the  plants 
by  sucking  the  juices.  When  abundant,  the  leaves]  lose  their  color, 
shrivel  and  die. 

Spraying  with  "Black  Leaf  40"  or  other  nicotine  preparation  is  the 
best  remedy  for  red  spider  in  the  open.  In  the  greenhouse,  spraying  the 
plants  with  water  under  pressure  will  reduce  the  number  of  red  spiders, 
and  is  the  method  of  control  commonly  employed. 


CHAPTER  XIV 
MARKETING 

Profits  in  commercial  gardening  depend  as  much  upon  proper 
handling  and  marketing  as  upon  good  cultural  practices.  Many 
gardeners,  however,  assume  that  when  they  have  produced  crops 
of  good  quality  and  put  them  on  the  market  they  are  not  to  blame 
if  the  receipts  do  not  cover  cost  of  growing.  The  grower  is  largely 
responsible  for  the  appearance  of  his  product  when  it  reaches  the 
market,  and,  unless  he  has  carefully  graded  and  packed  it  in 
attractive,  substantial  packages,  he  has  not  done  all  that  is  expected 
of  him.  The  essentials  for  success  in  profitable  marketing  are:  (1)  A 
good,  seasonable  product;  (2)  careful  and  uniform  grading;  (3)  good 
packing;  (4)  attractive  packages;  and  of  convenient  size  and  shape 
for  the  product;  (5)  judicious  selection  of  markets  to  avoid  gluts; 
(6)  honesty  in  grading  and  packing  and  in  all  dealings  with  the  buyer 
and  (7)  good  salesmanship. 

Many  gardeners  are  experts  as  producers  and  failures  as  salesmen. 
This  is  natural  since  the  problems  are  different,  but  it  is  essential  that  the 
grower,  who  does  his  own  marketing,  devote  time  and  study  to  the 
problems  of  marketing  as  well  as  to  those  of  production.  Under  many 
conditions  it  is  probably  better  for  the  grower  to  specialize  on  production 
and  let  others  do  the  marketing  than  to  attempt  to  become  expert  in 
both  lines.  However,  the  grower  must  know  what  the  market  demands 
both  in  products  and  methods  of  handling,  even  if  others  are  looking  after 
the  selling. 

Much  of  the  marketing  problem  belongs  to  the  field  of  economics 
and  hence  will  be  discussed  here  very  briefly.  To  understand  the 
problems  of  transportation,  of  organization  of  marketing  associations 
and  of  merchandizing  requires  a  knowledge  of  the  fundamentals  of 
economics. 

Harvesting. — The  stage  of  development  of  vegetables  when  harvested 
determines  to  a  considerable  extent  the  quality  of  the  product  when 
it  reaches  the  consumer.  No  definite  rule  can  be  given  in  regard  to 
time  of  harvesting  since  this  depends  upon  the  kind  of  crop,  the  weather 
conditions  at  harvest  time  and  the  distance  to  market  or  the  length  of 
time  required  to  reach  the  consumer.  Some  crops  as  beans,  lima  beans, 
peas,  sweet  corn,  etc.  deteriorate  in  quality  if  not  harvested  soon  after 
reaching^  edible   maturity;   therefore  it  is  always  advisable  to  harvest 

112 


MARKETING  llS 

as  soon  as  this  stage  is  reached.  With  products  which  increase  consider- 
ably in  size  after  reaching  edible  maturity  there  is  a  tendency  to  delay 
harvesting  until  they  have  reached  full  size.  This  delay  often  results  in 
lowering  the  quality  of  the  product,  especially  with  beans,  peas,  lima 
beans,  beets,  carrots,  cucumbers  and  sweet  corn.  Tomatoes  and  musk- 
melons  grown  for  distant  markets  are  harvested  long  before  they  reach 
edible  maturity.  In  fact,  in  many  cases  they  have  not  begun  to  ripen 
when  harvested.  This  results  in  poor  quality  and  has  a  decided  tendency 
to  depress  the  market  for  these  products.  Both  tomatoes  and  musk- 
melons  should  be  allowed  to  remain  on  the  vines  as  long  as  possible  and 
still  have  them  reach  the  consumer  in  good  condition. 

Promptness  is  of  great  importance  in  harvesting  and  handling  many 
perishable  crops.  A  day's  delay  may  result  in  heavy  losses,  especially 
in  hot,  sultry  weather  or  in  seasons  when  frosts  are  likely  to  occur. 
Lettuce  often  becomes  almost  worthless  in  a  day  after  the  heads  have 
formed,  especially  if  the  weather  is  very  hot.  The  plants  may  send  up 
seed  stalks  or  become  seriously  injured  by  "tip  burn"  and  "drop." 
Promptness  in  removing  the  products  from  the  field  is  important  with 
most  crops,  especially  in  very  hot  weather  and  in  wet  weather. 

Enormous  losses  occur  each  year  due  to  carelessness  in  harvesting  and 
handhng  vegetables.  Much  of  this  could  be  overcome  through  instruc- 
tion of  the  help  in  the  proper  methods  of  harvesting  and  handling  the 
products  in  the  field.  Bruising  or  other  injury  detracts  from  the  appear- 
ance of  the  product  and  makes  it  more  susceptible  to  disease  injury, 
since  germs  are  more  likely  to  get  a  foothold  if  the  surface  is  broken. 

Preparation  for  Market. — Many  vegetables  require  special  prepara- 
tion before  they  are  ready  for  packing.  Root  crops,  asparagus,  celery, 
lettuce,  spinach  and  other  vegetables  are  often  washed  to  remove  any 
soil  that  adheres.  While  water  is  used  mainly  for  the  sake  of  cleanliness 
it  has  other  values.  It  gives  some  vegetables  a  bright  appearance  and 
prevents  them  from  wilting.  Washing  may  be  injurious,  since  moisture 
on  the  surface  is  favorable  to  the  development  of  diseases,  especially 
when  the  washed  product  is  packed  tightly  and  shipped  considerable 
distances.  Ridley  (123)  found  that  washing  spinach  increased  decay 
and  recommends  that  it  be  shipped  unwashed,  unless  it  is  very  dirty. 
Some  vegetables  are  trimmed  in  preparation  for  marketing.  The 
dirty,  decayed,  diseased  and  discolored  leaves  of  celery,  lettuce,  spinach 
and  other  leafy  vegetables  are  removed  before  the  products  are  packed 
for  market.  Removing  diseased  leaves  is  of  value  .in  checking  the 
development  of  disease  in  transit  and  on  the  market,  and  also  improves 
the  appearance  of  the  product.  Ramsey  and  Markell  (120)  found  that 
removing  lettuce  leaves  which  rested  on  the  soil  reduced  the  loss  due  to 
the  development  and  spread  of  lettuce  drop  (Sderotinia  libertiana) 
in  transit.     Part  of  the  foliage  of  root  crops  and  onions,  when  bunched 


114  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

for  market,  is  removed  either  by  stripping  off  part  of  the  leaves  or  by 
cutting  back  all  of  them.  In  any  trimming  the  aim  should  be  to  improve 
the  appearance  and  otherwise  increase  the  value  of  the  product. 

Asparagus,  rhubarb,  celery,  green  onions,  early  beets,  and  carrots 
are  often  tied  in  bunches  in  preparation  for  market.  This  is  done  for 
convenience  in  handling  in  retail  stores.  Various  materials  such  as 
raffia,  common  wrapping  cord  and  special  tape  are  used  for  tying.  The 
bunches  should  be  tied  tightly  so  that  they  present  a  neat  appearance  on 
the  market. 

Grading. — Well-graded  products  of  inferior  quality  often  sell  to  better 
advantage  than  poorly  graded  or  ungraded  products  of  high  quality. 
A  few  inferior  specimens  in  a  package  govern,  to  a  considerable  extent, 
the  price  paid  for  the  entire  contents  of  the  package.  Uniformity  in 
size,  shape,  color  and  ripeness  is  of  great  importance  in  disposing  of  any 
product  and  this  cannot  be  secured  without  careful  grading.  Grading 
means  more  than  separation  with  reference  to  size,  although  this  is 
important.  In  separating  any  product  into  grades  all  characters  that 
affect  the  appearance  and  quality  of  the  product  should  be  considered. 

Not  only  should  vegetables  be  carefully  graded,  but  there  should 
be  some  recognized  standard  that  applies  to  a  region  or  preferably  to 
the  whole  country.  Uniform  and  well-recognized  grades  make  for  cheap 
marketing,  for,  if  articles  are  not  graded  or  are  poorly  graded  the  buyer 
has  to  inspect  the  product  before  he  can  know  what  he  is  buying.  This 
adds  to  the  cost.  By  dividing  products  into  uniform  grades,  sales  may 
be  made  by  sample,  or  even  by  description,  thus  facilitating  the  marketing 
process.  Uniformity  in  grading  is  absolutely  essential  to  success  where 
products  are  sold  on  grade. 

Standard  grades  furnish  the  basis  for  trade.  Some  standard  is  essen- 
tial in  marketing  products  at  a  distance,  and  also  for  market  information 
and  inspection.  Lack  of  grade  standards  has  made  market  quotations 
unsatisfactory  to  the  grower  because  it  has  not  been  possible  to  describe 
products  in  terms  that  are  understood.  With  standard  grades  the  buyer 
and  seller  have  a  common  language  in  the  grade  name  or  number.  This 
is  especially  true  if  the  grades  are  legalized  by  state  or  national  laws. 
The  purchaser  of  potatoes  under  the  U.  S.  Potato  Grading  Law  is  reason- 
ably sure  that  he  will  get  a  product  that  will  meet  at  least  the  minimum 
requirement  of  the  grade  specified,  and  the  grower  is  reasonably  certain 
to  secure  a  price  based  on  a  definite  grade.  Standard  grades  eliminate  a 
great  deal  of  friction  between  producer  and  dealer  due  to  lack  of  under- 
standing and  also  reduces  loss  caused  by  rejections,  delays  and  dishonest 
dealing.  They  simplify  the  whole  marketing  process.  Standardizing 
grades  is  one  of  the  first  improvements  attempted  by  any  successful 
cooperative  marketing  organization,  for  it  is  recognized  that  the  first  step 
in  marketing  is  to  have  standard  products. 


MARKETING  115 

During  the  past  10  years  the  United  States  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture and  some  of  the  states  have  studied  the  methods  of  grading  employed 
by  the  most  successful  producers  and  dealers  with  the  idea  of  working 
out  grade  standards  for  various  products.  The  fact  that  definite  grade 
standards  have  been  recommended  for  only  a  few  products  indicates 
the  care  that  is  being  taken  in  working  out  this  problem.  The  Bureau 
of  Markets  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  after  several  years' 
study,  has  suggested  tentative  grades  for  tomatoes,  cabbage,  sweet 
potatoes,  northern-grown  onions,  Bermuda  onions,  celery,  cucumbers, 
lettuce  and  asparagus.  If  these  grades  meet  with  approval  of  the  grower 
and  dealer,  after  sufficient  trial.  Congress  will  be  asked  to  legalize  them. 

In  any  set  of  grade  standards  the  aim  should  be  to  make  the  grading 
and  the  descriptive  terms  as  simple  as  possible.  Technical  descriptions 
and  complicated  grades  discourage  the  use  of  any  set  of  standards  by 
the  average  grower.  The  number  of  grades  should  be  kept  to  the  mini- 
mum, preferably  only  two  for  most  products.  The  first  grade  should 
include  a  large  part  of  any  well-grown  crop.  The  second  grade  should 
usually  include  the  marketable  product  that  does  not  meet  the  require- 
ments for  the  first  grade.  If  anj^  portion  of  a  crop  is  below  the  require- 
ments of  the  second  grade,  and  is  still  marketable,  it  should  ordinarily  be 
sold  by  sample  as  "sample  grade." 

Packages  for  Vegetables. — Packages  of  some  kind  are  necessary 
for  nearly  all  vegetables  when  they  are  shipped,  and  for  most  of  them 
even  when  hauled  direct  to  the  market  from  the  field.  Packages  per- 
form the  following  functions:  (1)  Furnish  convenient  means  for  hauling 
products;  (2)  give  protection  to  the  goods  themselves;  (3)  furnish  security 
from  pilfering;  (4)  provide  a  measure  of  the  contents;  (5)  provide  ventila- 
tion; (6)  prevent  loss  of  small  articles;  (7)  insure  cleanhness;  (8)  provide  a 
means  whereby  products  may  carry  identification  marks,  shipping 
directions,  legal  requirements  and  advertising  matter. 

Vegetables  are  packed  in  various  kinds  and  sizes  of  packages  from 
the  small  berry  box  to  the  barrel,  including  all  kinds  and  sizes  of  baskets, 
hampers,  boxes,  crates  and  bags.  Downing  (38)  writing  on  this  point 
states,  that  there  are  in  common  use  today  (1921)  about  40  sizes  of  cab- 
bage crates,  20  styles  of  celery  crates,  30  styles  of  lettuce  crates  or  boxes, 
50  styles  and  sizes  of  hampers,  15  styles  and  sizes  of  round  stave  baskets 
and  market  baskets  varying  in  size  from  1  quart  to  24  quarts,  whereas 
relatively  few  standard  sizes  would  satisfy  all  the  demands  of  the  trade. 

The  above  statement  shows  the  need  for  standardization  of  packages 
and  the  elimination  of  a  large  percentage  of  the  sizes  and  styles  now  in 
use.  The  large  number  of  types  and  sizes  of  packages  in  use  make  for 
confusion  and  add  to  the  expense  of  the  product  by  increasing  the  machin- 
ery necessary  for  manufacture.  Lack  of  standardization  of  packages, 
with  reference  to  size,  makes  it  easy  for  dishonest  persons  to  give  short 


116 


VEGETABLE  CROPS 


measure.     Many  packages,  which  ai^pear  to  have  the  same  capacity, 
often  show  a  difference  of  10  to  25  i)er  cent  or  more  in  actual  measure- 


Fig.  4. — Two  hampers  of  similar  appearance  but  of  different  capacity.  The  pile  of 
beans  in  front  of  the  basket  on  the  right  represents  the  difference  in  quantity  held  by  the 
two  baskets. 


Fig.  5.—  ,^ 


pare  with  Fi 


I    IlUcdM    II,   ^111    1 

{Coiaii  sy  of  r.  .S.  DcpaUmtnt  of  Agriculture) 


ment  (Fig.  4),  due  to  slight  difference  in  one  dimension.     This  is  notice- 
ably true  of  the  hamper,  which  is  made  in  sizes  ranging  from  one  quart  to 


MARKETING 


117 


48  quarts.  Figure  5  illustrates  the  various  sizes  and  shapes  of  hampers 
found  on  the  market,  and  Fig.  6  shows  five  which  would  meet  all  of 
the  requirements. 


«W 


5 


^-TTf 


Fig.  6. — -Five  hampers  of  sizes  and  types  recommended  by  the  U.  S.  Department  of 
Agriculture,  as  meeting  all  the  requirements  of  the  trade.  Compare  with  Fig.  5.  {Cour- 
tesy of  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.) 


Fig.  7. — Above:  Till  or  small  fruit  baskets  now  standardized  bylaw.  Below:  Some 
of  the  sizes  of  small  fruit  baskets  before  Government  standardization.  {Courtesy  of  U.  S. 
Department  of  Agriculture.) 

Standards  for  containers  for  fruits  and  vegetables  have  been  estab- 
lished by  the  Federal  Government  for  the  standard  barrel,  containing 
7,056  cubic  inches,  and  its  subdivisions;  the  cranberry  barrel,  containing 


118  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

5,826  cubic  inches  with  its  subdivisions;  three  standard  sizes  of  Chmax 
grape  baskets  (Fig.  7),  containing  2,  4  and  12  dry  quarts,  respective!}^; 
and  standard  berry  boxes  and  till  baskets,  containing  one-half  pint,  pint, 
quart  and  multiples  of  the  quart,  dry  measure.  The  Standard  Barrel 
Act  is  enforced  by  the  Bureau  of  Standards,  Department  of  Commerce, 
and  by  local  sealers  of  weights  and  measures  in  those  states  which  have 
adopted  the  Federal  Standard.  The  United  States  Standard  Container 
Act,  fixing  standards  for  Climax  baskets  and  for  berry  boxes,  and  small 
till  baskets,  is  enforced  by  the  Bureau  of  Markets  of  the  Department 
of  Agriculture. 

The  hamper  is  one  of  the  most  widely  used  shipping  containers  and 
is  well  adapted  to  fight  produce.  It  is  not  entirely  satisfactory  for  heavy 
produce,  especially  for  the  tomato  which  is  likely  to  be  injured  by  being 
crushed.  The  fruit  in  the  bottom  of  a  hamper  is  often  badly  crushed 
by  the  weight  of  the  fruit  above.  The  main  advantages  of  the  hamper 
are:  (1)  Relatively  low  price;  (2)  lightness  in  weight;  (3)  convenience  in 
handling  and  transporting  when  empty  since  they  nest  well;  (4)  provide 
good  ventilation  and  (5)  allow  good  circulation  of  air  when  loaded  in  a  car. 

Round  stave  baskets  are  popular  in  many  regions  and  are  increasing 
in  popularit3^  These  baskets  are  used  to  some  extent  for  cauliflower 
when  hauled  direct  to  market,  and  for  beets,  carrots,  sweet  potatoes, 
peppers,  beans  and  peas.  Round  stave  baskets  are  used  for  shipping 
vegetables  and  are  also  used  in  the  field  in  the  place  of  lug  boxes. 

Splint  or  veneer  baskets,  commonly  known  as  market  baskets,  are 
used  extensively  in  marketing  greenhouse  products,  such  as  lettuce, 
tomatoes  and  cucumbers.  These  baskets  are  also  used  to  a  large  extent 
as  direct  marketing  packages,  because  they  can  be  carried  conveniently, 
thus  encouraging  the  purchase  of  produce  in  larger  quantities  than  is 
usually  the  case. 

Boxes  and  crates  of  various  styles  and  sizes  are  used  for  many  prod- 
ucts. Most  of  these  are  made  for  a  specific  product  as  lettuce  boxes, 
celery  crates,  cauliflower  crates,  asparagus  crates  or  boxes  and  musk- 
melon  crates.  Some  of  these  crates  and  boxes,  such  as  the  folding  crate 
and  the  lug  boxes,  the  latter  used  largely  in  local  marketing,  are  employed 
for  many  products.  Lug  boxes  are  not  made  for  any  particular  product, 
but  for  use  in  hauling  all  kinds  of  vegetables  to  nearby  markets.  These 
boxes  are  returned  and  used  over  and  over  until  they  are  so  badly  broken 
that  they  are  no  longer  serviceable. 

Packing  Vegetables  for  Market. — In  packing  vegetables  for  market 
there  are  three  important  considerations:  (1)  A  satisfactory  package 
for  the  product;  (2)  honest  packing,  which  includes  uniform  product 
throughout  the  package  and  full  measure;  (3)  careful  placing  of  the 
product  so  that  the  specimens  will  remain  in  position  until  they  reach 
the  market  and  present  an  attractive  appearance. 


MARKETING  119 

The  package  should  be  selected  for  the  particular  product,  bearing 
in  mind  the  protection  of  the  product  itself  and  also  the  demands  of  the 
market.  In  selecting  a  container  for  vegetables,  to  be  shipped  long 
distances  attention  should  be  given  to  its  ability  to  withstand  rough 
handling  and  to  its  desirability  from  the  standpoint  of  stacking  in  the 
car,  as  well  as  to  the  possibihty  of  quick  cooling  of  the  product. 

Honest  packing  should  be  practiced  because  "honesty  is  the  best 
policy."  The  packer,  who  puts  up  a  dishonest  pack  fools  no  one  but 
himself.  The  buyer  is  always  on  the  lookout  for  dishonest  packing  and 
usually  penalizes  the  produce  and  the  producer,  or  packer.  A  few  low 
grade  goods  in  a  package  of  high  quality  produce,  governs  to  a  large 
extent  the  price  paid  for  the  entire  contents. 

Transportation  of  Vegetables. — Market  garden  products  are  hauled 
direct  to  the  market  by  wagon  or  motor  truck,  or  shipped  relatively  short 
distances  by  local  freight  and  express.  The  truck  grower  at  a  greater 
distance  from  the  market,  transports  his  produce  by  express,  by  through 
freight,  usually  in  carload  lots,  or  by  boat.  The  transportation  problem 
of  the  truck  grower  is  much  more  complicated  than  that  of  the  market 
gardener  and  the  transportation  expense  is  usually  much  greater  with 
the  truck  grower.  For  most  products,  shipped  long  distances,  refrigeration 
must  be  used  and  this  adds  to  the  cost  of  transporting.  During  very 
cold  weather  cars  are  often  heated  to  prevent  freezing  the  produce. 
Both  refrigeration  and  car  heating  are  items  of  expense  almost  unknown 
to  the  market  gardener. 

Transportation  facilities  have  extended  the  area  of  production  of 
perishable  products  from  the  limits  of  the  wagon  haul  to  the  confines  of 
the  United  States  and  even  beyond.  Fast  freight  and  the  refrigerator 
car  now  enable  producers,  located  long  distances  from  the  market,  to 
take  advantage  of  climatic  conditions  to  grow  crops  for  the  large  Eastern 
markets,  when  these  markets  could  not  be  supplied  with  local  products. 
This  has  the  effect  of  extending  the  season  of  consumption  of  many  crops. 
Field-grown  lettuce  and  celery  are  available  practically  throughout  the 
year,  and  beans,  peas,  tomatoes,  beets  and  many  other  crops  are 
available  from  the  field  a  large  part  of  the  year. 

Transportation  by  water  is  cheaper  than  by  rail  and  the  cargoes  are 
subjected  to  less  injury  from  dust,  dirt,  heat  and  jolting.  However,  it 
requires  a  longer  time  to  get  produce  to  market  by  boat  than  by  rail, 
hence  the  former  is  impracticable  for  very  perishable  products  grown 
long  distances  from  the  market.  A  considerable  portion  of  the  products 
grown  in  southern  Michigan  is  shipped  by  boat  to  Chicago,  Milwaukee, 
and  other  lake  ports;  and  produce  from  Norfolk,  Virginia  is  shipped  by 
boat  to  Washington,  Baltimore,  New  York  and  Boston. 

Selling  Vegetables. — Vegetables  are  disposed  of  by  producers  by  the 
following  methods:   (1)  By  retail  to  the   consumer,   through  house  to 


120  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

house  sales,  city  retail  markets,  roadside  stands,  or  by  parcel  post  and 
express;  (2)  by  wholesale  to  retail  dealers,  wholesale  dealers  or  jobbers; 

(3)  by  consigning  to  commission  merchants  who  sell  on  commission  and 

(4)  by  selling  through  a  cooperative  organization,  which  might  use  any  or 
all  of  the  last  three  methods. 

Retail  selling  is  not  popular  except  with  the  small  gardener  since 
the  time  required  to  sell  a  load  of  produce  by  house  to  house  calls,  or 
even  standing  on  a  retail  market  requires  too  much  time.  Most  growers 
feel  that  their  time  is  of  more  value  on  the  farm  than  in  selling  produce 
in  small  lots.  This  is  probably  true,  for,  on  nearly  all  public  markets  a 
large  percentage  of  the  best  gardeners  sell  in  wholesale  lots  to  retail 
merchants  or  other  dealers  or  hucksters.  One  serious  objection  to  retail 
selling  on  a  public  market  is  the  absence  of  consumer  buyers  on  days 
when  the  weather  is  very  cold,  very  hot,  or  rainy.  The  produce  must 
be  marketed  in  all  kinds  of  weather  and  it  is  natural  for  the  producer 
to  favor  the  buyers  who  are  always  on  hand. 

Wholesale  selling  is  followed  by  a  large  percentage  of  market  gardeners 
and  by  practically  all  truck  growers.  The  latter  are  not  located  near 
enough  to  the  markets  to  do  a  retail  business.  Market  gardeners  sell 
largely  to  stores  and  to  hucksters,  although  they  sell  to  hotels  and 
restaurants,  and  also  to  wholesale  dealers.  Truck  growers  sell  largely 
to  wholesale  dealers,  jobbers  or  brokers.  These  may  have  representatives 
on  the  ground,  who  buy  the  produce  outright  at  the  shipping  point, 
or  the  products  may  be  sold  by  telegraph  subject  to  inspection  on  arrival. 
Most  growers  prefer  to  sell  to  buyers  at  the  shipping  point  rather  than 
take  chances  on  shipping  produce  subject  to  inspection  on  arrival. 

Cooperative  marketing  by  farmers  has  been  employed  to  a  limited 
extent  for  many  years,  but  within  the  past  10  years  hundreds  of  coopera- 
tive organizations  have  been  formed  for  selling  all  kinds  of  agricultural 
products  and  for  buying  supplies.  While  cooperative  associations  can 
accomplish  more  for  the  farmer  than  he  can  accomplish  for  himself  it 
should  be  remembered  that  there  have  been  many  failures  and  relatively 
few  successes  in  this  field.  This  fact  should  be  a  warning  to  go  slowly 
and  to  study  thoroughly  the  need  of  a  cooperative  organization,  the 
reasons  for  success  and  failure,  and  the  methods  followed  by  successful 
organizations.  Many  failures  have  been  due  to  lack  of  need  of  a  coop- 
erative association  and  lack  of  cooperative  spirit,  poor  management 
and  poor  business  methods. 

Cooperative  associations,  to  be  successful,  must  be  organized  because 
of  a  real  need  and  the  members  must  have  the  proper  attitude  toward 
cooperation.  In  addition  to  these  there  must  be  a  sufficient  volume  of 
business  to  make  economical  operation  possible,  there  must  be  capable 
management,  good  business  methods  and  loyalty  to  the  association  on  the 
part  of  the  members.     An  organization  formed  for  the  purpose  of  han^ 


MARKETING  121 

dling  a  special  crop  is  more  likely  to  be  successful  than  one  organized  to 
handle  many  crops.  Each  industry  has  its  own  problems  to  solve  and  its 
particular  trade  practices  and  connections  with  which  to  deal. 

Some  of  the  important  services  that  a  cooperative  organization  can 
render  to  the  grower  are:  (1)  Standardize  the  product;  (2)  improve  the 
grading  and  packing;  (3)  develop  old  markets  and  find  new  ones;  (4) 
effect  savings  through  large  scale  handling,  better  distribution,  etc.; 
(5)  secure  and  disseminate  crop  and  market  information;  (6)  advertise 
the  products  of  the  members,  and  (7)  buy  needed  supplies.  Most  of 
these  things  can  be  accomplished  by  an  organization  because  funds  are 
available  to  secure  the  services  of  experts  along  the  various  lines.  This  is 
impossible  for  most  individual  growers,  since  the  volume  of  business  is  too 
small  to  bear  the  burden  of  all  the  services  that  a  cooperative  association 
can  render. 


CHAPTER  XV 
STORAGE  OF  VEGETABLES 

Storage  of  perishable  products  is  an  economic  necessity  antl  the 
business  of  storage  is  an  important  element  in  modern  marketing  of 
vegetables.  Storage  stabilizes  prices  by  carrying  over  goods  from  periods 
of  high  production  to  periods  of  low  production,  thus,  preventing  gluts 
on  the  one  hand  and  bare  markets  on  the  other.  Without  storage  the 
producer  would  be  forced  to  put  his  crops  on  the  market  soon  after 
harvest,  regardless  of  the  demand.  This  would  cause  a  glut  and  market 
stagnation  with  consequent  loss  to  the  producer.  While  the  consumer 
would  benefit  by  lower  prices  during  a  glut  he  would  more  than  make  up 
for  this  later  in  the  season  when  the  demand  became  greater  than  the 
supply,  resulting  in  very  high  prices.  Without  storage  enormous  losses 
would  occur  due  to  deterioration  and  decay,  and  this  would  increase  costs 
to  the  consumer  without  benefitting  the  producer.  One  of  the  needs 
of  the  present  time  is  more  and  better  storage. 

Requirements  of  Storage. — Successful  storage  of  vegetables  requires 
a  good  product  to  begin  with,  the  proper  moisture  and  temperature  for 
the  particular  products  to  be  stored,  and  fresh  air.  The  product  should 
not  be  over-ripe,  in  fact,  many  products  keep  best  when  harvested  before 
they  are  fully  matured.  They  should  be  practically  free  from  disease 
and  injury  of  all  kinds.  A  diseased  or  injured  product  usually  deterio- 
rates rapidly  in  storage. 

Specific  rules  regarding  moisture  and  temperature  that  will  apply 
to  all  products  stored  cannot  be  given.  Some  products  as  beets, 
carrots,  parsnips  and  turnips  keep  best  in  a  relatively  cold,  moist 
atmosphere,  while  others,  as  cabbage  and  onions  require  a  cold 
dry  atmosphere  for  best  results.  Sweet  potatoes  and  pumpkins  keep 
best  in  a  relatively  warm,  dry  atmosphere  and  deteriorate  rapidly 
under  moist,  cool  conditions.  Control  of  moisture  and  temperature 
are  secured  in  various  types  of  storage  structures  by  natural,  or  by 
artificial  means. 

Uniform  moisture  and  temperature  conditions  are  best  for  all  prod- 
ucts. Rapid  fluctuations  of  humidity  and  temperature  are  inimical 
to  good  keeping,  therefore  the  storage  structure  should  be  so  constructed 
that  rapid  changers  do  not  take  place. 

Storing  in  the  Field. — Field  storage,  in  trenches  and  pits,  and  by 
mounding  on  the  surface  of  the  ground,  is  still  practiced  to  some  extent. 

122 


STORAGE  OF  VEGETABLES  123 

Trenches  are  used  for  storing  cabbage  and  celery  and  pits  are  employed 
for  cabbage,  turnips,  beets,  carrots,  parsnips,  potatoes,  and  sweet  potatoes. 
All  of  the  crops  mentioned,  except  celery,  are  sometimes  placed  in  piles 
on  the  ground  and  covered  with  hay,  straw  or  other  litter  and  then  with 
soil.  The  covering  of  soil  must  be  heavy  enough  to  prevent  severe 
freezing. 

Field  storage  is  unsatisfactory  and  is  giving  way  to  other  methods. 
The  main  disadvantages  of  this  type  of  storage  are:  (1)  Temperature 
and  moisture  cannot  be  controlled;  (2)  difficulty  of  removing  produce 
from  trenches,  pits,  or  mounds  when  the  ground  is  frozen  which  may 
prevent  marketing  at  the  desired  time;  (3)  injury  to  the  product  not  re- 
moved when  a  pit,  or  mound  is  opened  during  cold  or  wet  weather;  (4) 
the  large  amount  of  labor  required  to  store  and  remove  the  products  by 
this  method  of  storage. 

During  the  time  vegetable  products  are  removed  from  field  storage 
the  weather  and  soil  conditions  are  usually  unfavorable  for  work  of  this 
kind.  This  is  one  of  the  factors  that  has  caused  a  change  in  the  method 
of  storage  on  many  farms. 

The  only  advantage  in  field  storage  is  that  it  is  always  available  and 
anj^  amount  of  space  can  be  used  as  required.  Many  growers  use  field 
storage  because  they  believe  it  is  cheap,  but  when  labor  is  taken  into 
consideration  it  is  an  expensive  method. 

For  short  storage  periods  the  mound  above  the  surface  of  the  ground 
is  fairly  satisfactory.  A  well-drained  location  should  be  selected  so  that 
no  surface  water  runs  about  the  base  of  the  mound.  The  surface  should 
be  leveled  and  it  is  desirable  to  have  two  small  trenches  across  the  bed, 
at  right  angles  to  each  other,  to  provide  for  ventilation  at  the  bottom. 
Boards  or  troughs  are  often  placed  over  the  trenches  and,  at  the  inter- 
section of  the  trenches,  a  small  open  box  is  set  on  end  to  form  a  flue  up 
through  the  pile  of  vegetables.  The  earth  floor  is  covered  with  4  or  5 
inches  of  hay,  straw,  or  other  litter  and  the  product  is  placed  on  this  in  a 
conical  pile  around  the  flue.  A  covering  of  straw,  hay  or  similar  material 
is  put  over  the  pile  and  over  this  a  layer  of  soil.  The  covering  of  soil 
should  be  only  a  few  inches  thick  at  first,  but  increased  as  the  weather  gets 
colder.  The  ends  of  the  trenches  and  fine  should  be  kept  open  for  venti- 
lation until  it  is  necessary  to  close  them  to  prevent  freezing  of  the  product. 
It  is  better  to  make  several  small  mounds  rather  than  to  make  one  large 
mound,  because  when  a  mound  is  opened  it  is  best  to  remove  the  entire 
contents. 

Storing  in  Cellars. — The  ordinary  house  cellar  is  used  to  a  considerable 
extent  for  the  storing  of  root  crops  for  home  use  and  also  for  market. 
This  is  likely  to  be  one  of  the  poorest  places  in  which  to  store  vegetables, 
if  it  contains  a  heater,  as  it  is  likely  to  be  so  warm  and  dry  that  the  prod- 
ucts will  shrivel.     However,  by  partitioning  off  a  room,  which  can  be 


124  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

kept  cool  and  fairly  moist,  the  house  cellar  is  satisfactory.     The  storage 
room  should  have  an  opening  to  the  outside  for  ventilation. 

Out-door  cellars,  made  especially  for  storing  root  crops,  usually  give 
better  results  than  the  house  cellar.  With  proper  construction  the 
temperature  and  moisture  can  be  controlled  to  some  extent.  This  type 
of  storage  structure  may  consist  of  a  pit  with  a  gable  roof  covered  with 
sods  or  soil,  or  a  more  elaborate  structure.  Some  of  the  more  elaborate 
storage  structures  are  built  in  a  depression  or  ravine  and  covered  with 
soil  except  at  the  ends.  The  structure  built  into  a  side  hill,  or  in  a 
ravine  and  covered  with  soil  is  preferable  to  the  pit  type  since  the  soil  on 
the  sides  and  top  prevents  rapid  changes  in  temperature.  In  any  case  the 
entire  structure  should  be  well-insulated  and  it  is  desirable  to  have  the 
exposed  end  face  the  south.  Strahan  (147)  gives  the  following  rules  for 
the  construction  of  root  cellars: 

1.  A  root  cellar  should  be  located  when  possible  in  a  side-hill  facing  the 
south  or  the  southeast. 

2.  It  should  be  completely  covered  with  at  least  2  feet  of  earth.  When  this  is 
impossible  by  reason  of  the  topography,  the  roof  should  be  thoroughly  insulated, 
special  attention  being  given  to  the  point  where  the  roof  joins  the  wall. 

3.  It  should  be  provided  with  ventilation  approximately  as  follows: 

For  cellars  of  from  1,000  to  5,000  cubic  feet  capacity  at  the  rate  of  60  to  80 
square  inches  of  flue  area  per  1,000  cubic  feet  capacity. 

For  larger  cellars,  from  5,000  cubic  feet  up,  at  the  rate  of  from  45  to  GO  square 
inches  of  flue  area  per  1,000  cubic  feet  capacity. 

Intake  ventilators  should  be  provided  of  approximately  the  same  area  as  the 
outtake  flues.  The  inside  ends  of  these  should  be  located  near  or  at  the  floor. 
The  drain  may  be  utilized  as  an  intake  ventilator. 

4.  Drainage  should  be  provided  by  ordinary  vitrified  sewer  pipe  not  smaller 
than  4  inches  in  diameter,  and  if  intended  for  use  as  a  ventilator  not  less  than  6 
inches.     It  must  be  thoroughly  screened  at  both  ends. 

5.  Doors  should  in  all  cases  be  double.  Windows  should  be  constructed  in 
such  a  way  as  to  make  possible  thorough  insulation  in  cold  weather  by  banking 
them  with  straw  or  other  similar  material.     They  should  be  well  screened. 

6.  A  dirt  floor  seems  to  be  preferable  to  a  concrete  floor  where  good  solid 
footing  can  be  obtained.  A  concrete  floor  is  preferable  where  it  is  necessary  to 
exclude  ground  water  due  to  local  springs  that  cannot  be  diverted  through  drains. 

Storage  cellars  are  best  suited  to  the  storage  of  beets,  carrots,  parsnips, 
turnips  and  potatoes  as  these  products  keep  best  where  the  humidity  is 
relatively  high. 

Storing  in  Above-ground  Houses. — Common  storage  houses  built 
entirely  above  the  surface  are  extensively  used  in  storing  sweet  potatoes, 
onions  and  cabbage,  and  also  to  some  extent  for  other  products.  Where 
it  is  necessary  to  have  a  dry  atmosphere  in  the  storage  house  the  cellar, 
or  structure  of  the  semi-cellar  type  is  not  satisfactory  since  it  is  difficult 
to  control  the  moisture  in  structures  of  this  kind. 


STORAGE  OF  VEGETABLES  125 

The  advantages  of  this  type  of  storage  over  any  of  the  others  men- 
tioned are:  (1)  Moisture  can  be  controlled  more  readily;  (2)  products 
can  be  put  in  and  taken  out  with  less  work  and  less  discomfort;  (3) 
grading  and  packing  can  be  done  to  better  advantage  than  from  field 
storage  or  even  in  most  types  of  cellars. 

The  character  of  construction  of  storage  houses  depends  mainly 
on  the  type  of  product  and  the  region  in  which  it  is  to  be  stored.  The 
colder  the  region  the  greater  the  amount  of  insulation  needed.  Sweet 
potato  storage  houses  in  the  South  differ  considerably  from  the  cab- 
bage and  onion  houses  in  the  North,  yet  the  same  general  principles 
of  iilsulation  and  ventilation  are  applied  in  the  two  regions. 

Cold  Storage. — During  recent  years  many  vegetables  have  been 
stored  to  some  extent  in  cold  storage  warehouses  where  artificial  refrigera- 
tion is  used.  The  tendency  is  toward  a  greater  use  of  this  type  of  storage. 
The  main  advantage  of  cold  storage  over  common  storage  is  in  the  control 
of  temperature  and  humidity,  especially  the  former.  In  cold  storage 
warehouses  the  temperature  can  be  kept  at  the  desired  point  regardless 
of  the  weather  condition,  provided  the  building  has  been  properly  con- 
structed and  equipped.  This  ready  control  of  temperature  is  not  possible 
in  any  other  type  of  storage,  consequently  less  loss  is  sustained  under 
refrigeration  than  in  common  storage.  For  this  reason  cold  storage  is 
being  used  even  for  products  which  keep  fairly  well  in  common  storage. 
At  the  present  time  cold  storage  is  used  for  a  large  part  of  the  celery, 
which  is  stored,  and  to  some  extent  for  lettuce,  onions,  potatoes,  carrots, 
beets,  cabbage,  cauhflower  and  other  vegetables.  Practically  all  vege- 
tables can  be  kept  in  cold  storage  for  a  short  period,  but  very  little  is 
known  regarding  the  best  temperatures  and  the  critical  temperatures  for 
the  different  products.  For  most  vegetables  kept  in  cold  storage  a 
temperature  of  32  degrees  F.  or  thereabouts  is  considered  best,  although 
for  table  potatoes  this  is  too  low. 

Location  of  Storage  Houses. — In  the  early  development  of  storage 
the  houses  usually  were  built  on  the  farm  for  use  by  the  owner  to  store 
his  surplus  for  home  use,  or  for  sale.  While  farm  storage  is  still  used 
to  a  considerable  extent  the  tendency  is  toward  commercial  storage 
houses  in  the  cities,  or  at  some  central  railroad  point  in  the  producing 
region.  The  change  from  storage  on  the  farm  to  use  of  large,  commercial 
houses  makes  for  more  efficient  storage.  The  main  advantages  of  the 
large  commercial  houses  over  the  small  storage  structures  on  the  farms 
are:  (1)  Lower  cost  per  cubic  foot  of  storage  space;  (2)  lower  maintenance 
and  management  cost;  (3)  usually  more  efficient. management,  because 
large-scale  storage  permits  of  employment  of  efficient  managers  who 
devote  their  time  to  the  business;  (4)  usually  better  equipment  for  han- 
dling produce  at  the  storage  house  and  therefore  less  labor  required  in 
doing  the   work;   (5)   better  location  with  reference  to  transportation 


126  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

facilities  to  markets.  Produce  stored  in  farm  storage  houses  must  be 
hauled  to  the  market  or  to  the  shipping  point  during  late  fall  and  winter 
when  the  roads  are  likely  to  be  bad  and  the  weather  cold.  Sometimes  it 
is  impossible  to  get  the  farm-stored  produce  to  market  when  there 
is  the  greatest  demand  and  very  often  it  is  not  safe  to  expose  vegetables 
to  the  weather  during  winter.  Thcvse  factors  often  cause  farmers  to  miss 
good  markets.  When  the  produce  is  stored  in  the  consuming  centers  or 
on  a  good  transportation  line  it  can  be  placed  on  the  market  at  any  time, 
and  for  this  reason  central  storage  houses  are  more  popular  than  farm 
storage  houses. 

Common  storage  houses,  those  having  no  artificial  means  of  cooling, 
are  usually  located  on  the  farms,  or  at  some  central  point  in  the  producing 
region.  Cold  storage  houses  are  located  mainly  in  the  cities  although 
a  small  percentage  are  located  in  small  towns  or  villages  in  fruit  and 
vegetable  regions.  The  main  advantage  of  locating  storage  houses  in  the 
cities  is  the  convenience  of  marketing. 

Cold  storage  space  in  the  cities  is  usuall}^  controlled  by  dealers, 
hence  the  producer  gets  only  an  indirect  benefit  from  such  houses. 
This  has  led  growers,  in  man}^  sections,  to  build  cold  storage  plants 
in  the  producing  region.  There  is  an  advantage  in  having  cold  storage 
houses  near  the  producing  region  especially  for  very  perishable  products 
such  as  celery  and  lettuce.  The  sooner  perishable  products  are  placed 
in  storage  after  they  are  harvested  the  longer  they  will  keep.  In  fact,  if 
celery  and  lettuce  are  placed  in  storage  after  being  in  transit  for  several 
days,  they  will  keep  only  a  short  time,  due  to  the  fact  that  the  tempera- 
ture in  most  parts  of  a  refrigerator  car  is  not  low  enough  to  prevent 
deterioration. 

Effects  of  Storage  on  the  Vegetable  Industry.— Storage  extends  the 
period  of  consumption  of  many  vegetables  and  this  increases  the  demand. 
Without  storage  the  consumer  would  be  able  to  secure  vegetables  only 
during  the  time  that  they  are  available  from  the  field  in  various  sections 
of  the  country.  With  some  crops  this  would  cover  a  considerable  portion 
of  the  year  while  with  others  it  would  cover  a  relatively  short  period. 
Sweet  potatoes  would  be  available  for  only  4  or  5  months  while  Irish 
potatoes  and  onions  for  6  or  7  months.  Without  storage  the  acre- 
age of  many  vegetables  would  have  to  be  reduced,  because  it  would 
be  impossible  to  consume,  during  the  harvesting  period,  all  that  is  now 
grown.  Storage  therefore  increases  consumption  by  lengthening  the 
period  of  availability  of  man}^  standard  vegetable  products. 

Storage  increases  the  price  the  farmer  receives  for  his  products, 
even  if  they  are  stored  by  middlemen,  because  it  helps  to  prevent  market 
gluts.  Cance,  Machmer  and  Read  (20)  found  that  the  average  price 
paid  to  the  farmer  for  onions  for  the  3  years  1913-1915  in  Massachusetts 
was  $1.14  per  100  pounds  and  the  average  wholesale  price  for  onions  out 


STORAGE  OF  VEGETABLES 


127 


of  storage  was  about  $2.20  per  100  pounds.  The  difference  between 
the  price  paid  the  farmer  and  the  wholesale  price  from  storage  covers  cost 
of  storage,  cost  of  extra  handling,  loss  due  to  shrinkage  and  disease, 
speculative  risk  and  profit.  The  average  monthly  price  paid  for  various 
products  show  the  efTects  of  storage  on  prices.  Table  XIV  gives  the 
average  monthly  price  of  sweet  potatoes  for  10  years,  1911  to  1920  as 
published  in  the  "Monthly  Crop  Reporter"  for  December  1920  and  also 
the  average  monthly  price  for  the  entire  period.  The  average  for  the 
entire  period  was  computed  by  the  author  from  the  figures  given  in  the 
publication  mentioned. 

Table  XIV.— The  Estimated  Average  Price,  Cents  per  Bushel,  to  Producers 

FOR  Sweet  Potatoes,  Monthly  for  10  Years;  and  the  Average  for  the 

10-YEAR  Period  1911-1920 


1912   I    1911 


Average 

for 
10-year 
period 


Jan.    15 

151.1 

Feb.    15 

163.6 

Mar.  15 

179.2 

Apr.    15 

193.9 

May  15 

199.7 

June  15  

205.2 

July    15 

200.7 

Aug.   15 

210.8  ' 

Sept.  15 

190.0 

Oct.    15 

138.7 

Nov.  15 

116.5 

Dec.  15 

137.8 
149.2 
157.2 
176.2 
174.4 
162.7 
159.7 
195.4 
174.6 
150.9 
135.1 
125.8 


92.9 
100.0 
115.5 
126.0 
132.6 
135.8 
124.4 
126.3 
120.3 
110.5 
105.6 
110.8 


72.7 
76.4 
80.1 
81.0 
78.9 
83.9 
87.5 
99.0 
88.1 
80.3 
80.3 
86.4 


81.0 
85.0 
90.8 
100.8 
98.1 
97.6 
93.1 
97.2 
80.0 
69.7 
62.9 
65.0 


82.5 
86.1 
87.3 
91.9 
92.7 
92.5 
94.5 
98.4 
90.1 
79.3 
72.3 
74.9 


83.7 
87.0 
90.8 
94.3 
93.2 


78.0 
73.4 

75.8 


93.5 
102.4 
117.4 
118.6 
III.4I 
113.0 
102.51 
88. 9| 
79.9 
73.7 
77.2 


79.1 
81.6 
87.3 
95.0 
103.6 
93.8 
104.1 
107.4 
97.9 
85.6 
76.2 
79.0 


99.08 
105.2 
113.9 
123.4 
125.0 
120.7 
120.8 
128.7 
118.4 
102.5 
93.3 
92. S 


It  will  be  noticed  that  there  is  great  variation  in  prices  during  any 
one  year  and  also  great  variation  in  the  yearly  averages.  The  lowe^st 
prices  usually  prevail  during  the  harvest  period  and  immediately  there- 
after and  the  highest  prices  obtain  late  in  the  storage  season. 

Variations  in  prices  similar  to  those  for  sweet  potatoes  occur  with 
cabbage,  potatoes,  onions  and  celery.  With  more  storage  there  would 
be  less  variation  in  price  from  month  to  month  but  the  yearly  average 
might  not  differ  very  materially  from  what  it  is  under  present  conditions. 


CHAPTER  XVI 
CLASSIFICATION  OF  VEGETABLES 

Before  attempting  to  give  an  analysis  of  the  methods  of  growing 
vegetables  it  seems  desirable  to  classify  the  crops.  Any  method  of 
classification  systematizes  to  some  extent  the  preparation  and  presen- 
tation of  the  material  and  eliminates  unnecessary  repetition  of  some  of  the 
principles  of  culture.  While  an  alphabetical  arrangement  of  crops  is  the 
best  for  reference,  it  does  not  contribute  to  an  understanding  of  relation- 
ship or  similarity  of  cultural  requirements.  There  are  four  general 
methods  of  classification  as  follows:  (1)  A  botanical  classification;  (2) 
a  classification  based  on  hardiness;  (3)  a  classification  based  on  parts  used; 
(4)  a  classification  based  on  essential  methods  of  culture.  A  fifth  method 
combining  parts  of  the  four  mentioned  may  be  used  to  advantage  in 
grouping  crops  for  discussion. 

Botanical  Classification. — A  classification  based  entirely  on  botanical 
relationship  is  the  most  exact  system,  but  in  many  cases  this  is  of  little 
value  in  giving  principles  of  culture  since  crops  within  a  family  may  vary 
widely  in  their  requirements.  Potatoes  and  eggplants  belong  to  the  same 
family  but  their  requirements  are  very  different.  However,  other  crops  in 
this  family,  as  tomatoes,  eggplants,  and  peppers,  have  similar  require- 
ments. Most  of  the  vegetables  belonging  to  the  family  Cucurbitaceae 
have  similar  cultural  requirmenets  as  well  as  the  same  disease  and  insect 
pests.     This  is  also  true  of  plants  in  many  other  families. 

The  botanical  system  of  classification  is  of  value  in  showing  relation- 
ship and  is  given  to  show  the  families  represented,  as  well  as  the  impor- 
tant vegetable  crops  belonging  to  each. 

Gramineae,  Grass  Family 

Sweet  corn,  Zea  Mais  var.  rugnsa 
Pop  corn,  Zea  Mais 

Lilaceae,  Lily  Family 

Asparagus,  Asparagus  officinalis 

Onion,  Allium  cepa 

Garlic,  A.  sativum 

Leek,  A.  Porrum 

Chive,  A.  Schoenoprasum 

Shallot,  A.  ascalonicum 

Chenopodiaceae,  Gooscfoot  Family 
Spinach,  Spinacia  oleracea 

128 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  VEGETABLES  ■  129 


Orach,  A  triplex  horiensis 

Beet,  Beta  vulgaris 

Chard,  B.  vulgaris  var.  Cicla 

Aizoaceae 

New  Zeahmd  spinach,  Tetragonia  expansa 

Cruciferae,  Mustard  Family 

Cabbage,  Brassica  oleracea  var.  capitata 
Cauliflower,  B.  oleracea  var.  botrytis 
Brussels  sprouts,  B.  oleracea  var.  genimifera 
Kale,  B.  oleracea  var.  acephala 
Kohl-rabi,  B.  oleracea  var.  caulorapa 
Chinese  cabbage,  B.  pekinensis 
Mustard,  B.  alba,  B.  nigra,  and  others 
Water  Cress,  Roripa  Nasturtium-aquaticum 
Cress,  Lepidium  sativum 
Sea-Kale,  Cranibe  maritima 
Radish,  Raphanus  saiims 
Turnip,  Brassica  rapa 
Rutabaga,  B.  Napobrassica 
Horse  Radish,  Armoracia  rusticana. 

Compositae,  Sunflower  Family- 
Lettuce,  Lactuca  sativa 
Chicory,  Witloff,  Cichorium  Intybus 
Salsify,  Tragopogon  porrifolius 
Spanish  salsify,  Scolymus  hispanicus 
Jerusalem  Artichoke  Heliardhus  iuberosus 
Artichoke,  Cynara  Scolymus 
Endive,  Cichorium  endivia 
Cardoon,  Cynara  Cardunculus 
Dandelion,  Taraxacum  officinale 
Tansy,  Tanacetum  vulgare 

Leguminoseae,  Pulse  or  Pea  Family 

Bean,  kidney  bean,  Phaseolus  vulgaris 

Lima  bean,  Phaseolus  lunatus  var.  macrocarpus 

Sieva  bean,  civet  bean,  P.  lunatus 

Tepary  bean,  P.  acutijolius 

Scarlet  runner  bean,  P.  muUiflorus 

Broad  bean,  Vicia  faba 

Cowpea,  Vigna  sinensis 

Soybean,  Glycine  hispida  or  Soja  max 

Hyacinth  bean,  Dolichos  lablab 

Pea,  Pisum  sativum 
Malvaceae,  Mallow  Family 

Okra,  Hibiscus  esculentus 

Roselle,  Hibiscus  Sabdariffa 
Umbelliferae,  Parsley  Family 

Celery,  Apium  graveolens 

Parsley,  Petroselinum  hortense 

Parsnip,  Pastinaca  sativa 

Carrot,  Daucus  carota 

Celeriac,  Apium  graveolens  var.  rapaceum 


130  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

Chervil,  Anthri.'icus  Ccrefoliuin 
Polygonaceae,  Buckwheat  Family 

Rhubarb,  Rheum  rhaponticum 
Martyniaceae,  Martynia  Family 

Martynia,  Martynia  proboscidea 
Convolvulaceae,  Morning  Glory  Family 

Sweet  potato,  Ipomoea  Tiatatm^ 
Solonaceae,  Nightshade  Family 

Potato,  Solatium  tuberosum 

Tomato,  Lycopersicum  encKleiilurn 
and  L.  Pimpinellifolium 

Pepper,  Capsicum  annuutn, 
and  C.  frutescens 

Eggplant 

Husk  tomato,  Physolis  spp.  iw 

Cuourbitaceae,  Gourd  Family  or  Melon  Family  m 

Cucumber,  Cucumis  sativus 

Muskmelon,  C.  melo 

Gherkin,  C.  Anguria 

Watermelon,  Ciirullus  vulgaris 

Squash,    Pumpkin,    Vegetable   marrow,    Curcurbita   Pepo,    C.    maxima   and   C 
moschata 

Chayote,  Sechium  cdule 

Classification  Based  on  Hardiness. — Vegetables  are  often  clas- 
sified as  "hardy"  and  "tender."  Those  classed  as  hardy  will  endure 
ordinary  frosts  without  injury,  while  those  classed  as  tender  are  killed 
when  subjected  to  the  same  temperature.  This  implies  that  frost 
injury  is  the  chief  distinction  between  hardy  and  tender  plants,  but 
there  are  other  distinctions.  Some  of  the  hardy  plants  will  not  thrive 
well  under  hot  dry  conditions  so  that  in  the  North  they  should  be 
planted  early  in  the  spring  or  late  in  the  summer.  Others  will  withstand 
frost  and  also  thrive  during  hot  weather  of  summer.  Some  tender 
vegetables  do  not  thrive  in  cool  weather  even  if  no  frost  occurs.  The 
terms  "cool  season"  and  "warm  season"  crops  are  used  to  suggest 
conditions  under  which  the  crops  thrive  best,  rather  than  their  sus- 
ceptibility to  frost  injury. 

Based  on  the  temperature  that  the  plants  will  withstand,  some 
vegetable  plants  are  hardy,  some  semi-hardy,  others  tender  and  still 
others  very  tender.  The  hardy  ones  may  safely  be  planted  before  the 
date  of  the  last  killing  frost  in  spring.  The  semi-hardy  will  not  stand  a 
hard  frost  but  will  grow  in  cool  weather  and  are  not  injured  by  a  light 
frost.  The  tender  plants  are  injured  or  even  killed  by  a  light  frost,  but 
can  withstand  cool  weather  and  a  cold  soil,  while  the  very  tender  are 
injured  by  cool  weather.  This  system  of  classification  is  of  some  value 
in  connection  with  a  discussion  of  time  of  planting.  By  grouping  all 
hardy  plants  together  general  principles  regarding  time  of  planting  can 
be  given  for  the  whole  group.     The  semi-hardy,  tender  and  very  tender 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  VEGETABLES  131 

plants  may  be  grouped  in  the  same  way  for  discussion.  This  system  is 
used  in  Chapter  IX. 

Classification  Based  on  Parts  Used  as  Food. — In  this  system  of  classi- 
fication those  crops  grown  for  their  leaves  or  stems  are  placed  in  one 
group.  This  group  includes  cabbage,  kohl-rabi,  coUards,  asparagus, 
rhubarb,  all  of  the  salad  crops  and  all  of  the  potherbs  or  greens.  A 
second  group  includes  those  crops  grown  for  their  fruits,  as  melons, 
tomatoes,  eggplants,  beans,  peas,  etc.,  while  a  third  group  includes  those 
grown  for  their  flower  parts  as  cauliflower  and  broccoli.  Those  crops 
grown  for  their  underground  portions;  roots,  tubers,  bulbs  and  corms,  as 
potato,  sweet  potato,  beets,  carrots,  parsnips,  radish,  turnip,  salsify, 
onions,  garhc,  dasheen  and  many  others  constitute  a  fourth  group.  In 
each  of  these  groups  the  crops  cover  a  great  range  of  cultural  require- 
ments so  that  grouping  them  in  this  way  is  not  of  much  value. 

Classification  Based  on  Methods  of  Culture. — A  system  of  classi- 
fication based  on  essential  methods  of  culture  is  very  convenient. 
In  this  system  all  those  crops  which  have  similar  cultural  requirements 
are  grouped  together  for  discussion.  This  makes  it  possible  to  give 
the  general  cultural  practices  for  the  group  without  the  necessity  of 
repetition  in  the  discussion  of  individual  crops.  This  system  combines 
some  parts  of  the  other  three  methods.  In  some  of  the  groups,  as 
cucurbits,  beans  and  peas,  bulb  crops,  and  cole  crops,  all  crops  con- 
sidered in  each  belong  to  the  same  family.  In  other  groups  as  perennial 
crops,  potherbs  and  greens,  salad  crops,  root  crops  and  the  potato  crops 
more  than  one  family  is  represented  in  each  group.  In  the  perennial 
crops  group  of  six  vegetables  five  families  are  represented. 

In  teaching  principles  of  vegetable  gardening  this  system  of  classifi- 
cation has  been  found  more  satisfactory  than  any  other  and  is  followed  in 
a  general  way  in  this  book.  In  some  of  the  groupings  the  crops  within 
a  group  do  not  have  much  in  common,  but  they  are  placed  together  for 
convenience.  The  vegetables  discussed  are  placed  in  eleven  groups 
and  the  discussion  for  each  group  constitutes  a  chapter.  The  grouping 
is  as  follows: 

Group     1.     Perennial  Crops. 

Asparagus,  Rhubarb,  Artichoke,  Jerusalem  Artichoke,  Sea-kale,  Udo. 
Group    2.     Potherbs  or  Greens. 

Spinach,  New  Zealand  Spinach,  Orach,  Kale,  Chard,   Mustard,  Col- 
lards,  Dandelion. 
Group    3.     Salad  Crops. 

Celery,  Lettuce,  Endive,  Chicory,  Cress,  Corn  Salad,  Parsley,  Salad 
Chervil. 
Group    4.     Cole  Crops. 

Cabbage,   Cauliflower,  Broccoli,  Brussels  sprouts,  Kohl-rabi,  Chinese 
Cabbage. 


132  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

Group    5.     Root  Crops. 

Beet,    Carrot,    Parsnip,    Turnip.    Rutabaga,    Salsify,    Turnip-rooted 
Chervil,     Skirret,     Radish,     Horse-radish,    Schorzonera    or    Black 
Salsify,  Scolymus  or  Spanish  Salsify. 
Group    6.     Bulb  Crops. 

Onion,    Leek,    Garlic,    ShiiUot,    Ciboul,    (Ciboule)    or   Welsh    onion, 
Chive  or  Cive. 
Group    7.     The  Potato  Crops. 

Potato  or  Irish  Potato,  Sweet  Potato 
Group    8.     Peas  and  Beans 

Pea,  Bean,  Broad  Bean,  Common  or  Garden  Bean,   Multiflora  Bean, 
Sieva  and  Lima  Beans,  Tepary  Bean,  Soybean,  Cowpea. 
Group    9.     Solanaceous  Fruits. 

Tomato,  Eggplant,  Pepper,  Husk  tomato  or  Physalis. 

Group  10.     The  Curcurbits. 

Cucumber,  Gherkin,  Muskmelon,  Watermelon,  Citron  Melon,  Pumpkin, 
Squash. 
Group  11.     Sweet  Corn,  Okra,  Martynia. 


CHAPTER  XVII 

PERENNIAL  CROPS 

Asparagus  Jerusalem  Artichoke  (Girasole) 

Rhubarb  Sea-Kale 

Artichoke  Udo 

Perennial  crops  occupy  the  land  for  a  period  of  years  and  therefore 
should  be  located  where  they  will  not  interfere  with  the  usual  tillage 
operations.  It  is  advisable  to  grow  perennial  crops  in  an  area  to  them- 
selves. In  the  home  garden  these  crops  should  be  planted  on  one  side,  or 
one  end  so  that  the  remainder  of  the  garden  can  be  treated  as  a  unit 
in  plowing  and  harrowing.  For  the  same  reason  on  commercial  vegetable 
farms  the  perennial  crops  should  be  grouped  together  in  one  field,  or  in 
one  portion  of  a  field.  After  perennial  crops  have  been  planted  manures 
and  fertilizers  are  applied  mostly  as  surface  applications.  Except  for 
the  points  mentioned  the  perennial  crops  have  little  in  common  as  far 
as  cultural  practices  are  concerned. 

ASPARAGUS 

Asparagus  is  one  of  the  most  delicate,  wholesome,  and  appetizing 
products  of  the  garden.  Its  early  appearance  in  the  spring,  together 
with  the  fact  that  an  asparagus  bed  when  once  established  will  produce 
for  many  years,  makes  it  of  special  importance  in  the  home  garden  as 
well  as  in  the  market  garden  and  on  the  truck  farm.  As  a  canned  product 
asparagus  is  one  of  the  best  because  it  retains  its  flavor  better  than 
most  other  vegetables. 

The  production  of  asparagus  for  market  and  for  canning  is  an  impor- 
tant industry.  According  to  the  census  report  of  1920  the  commercial 
crop  of  asparagus  grown  in  the  United  States  in  1919  was  valued  at 
$5,102,135.  The  total  number  of  acres  grown  for  market  was  30,244 
of  which  California  had  over  half,  or  17,444  and  was  followed  by  New 
Jersey  with  3,603,  Ilhnois  2,128,  Massachusetts  1,157,  South  Carohna 
1,145,  Pennsylvania  931  and  New  York  694  acres. 

History  and  Taxonomy. — Asparagus  is  indigenous  to  Europe  and 
Asia  where  it  has  been  in  cultivation  for  over  2,000  years.  It  was  prized 
as  a  food  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans  and  all  parts  of  the  plant  were 
valued  for  their  medicinal  properties.  Asparagus  has  been  grown  in 
the  gardens  of  America  ever  since  the  earliest  settlements  were  established. 

133 


134  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

Asparagus,  a  genus  of  the  lily  family,  has  at  least  150  species  native 
of  Europe,  Asia  and  Africa.  Some  of  these  are  herbaceous  and  some 
woody,  and  both  erect  and  climbing  forms  are  common.  In  addition 
to  the  edible  asparagus,  the  genus  contains  the  so-called  "smilax" 
used  by  florists  and  the  ornamental  plants  known  as  "asparagus  ferns." 
The  species  of  this  genus  are  devoid  of  ordinarj^  green  leaves,  the  green 
branches  functioning  as  leaves.  The  small  scales  or  spines  on  the  stems 
are  the  true  leaves. 

The  garden  asparagus,  A.  officinalis.  Linn.  var.  Atilis  Linn,  is  a  peren- 
nial, dioecious  herb  4  to  10  feet  tall.  The  male  flowers  are  yellowish 
green  and  conspicuous,  while  the  female  flowers  (on  separate  plants) 
are  less  conspicuous.  The  fruit  is  a  three-celled  berry  which  becomes 
red  as  it  matures.  The  seeds  are  large  (}^  inch  or  less  in  diameter) 
rounded  at  the  back,  but  more  or  less  flattened  on  one  side,  black 
in  color. 

Soil  Preference. — Asparagus  can  be  grown  on  nearly  all  kinds  of 
soils,  but  a  deep,  loose  soil  is  preferred.  Sandy  and  sandy  loam  soils  are 
used  to  a  large  extent  in  many  asparagus  growing  sections,  although  some 
of  the  muck  lands  of  California  are  considered  almost  ideal.  From  the 
standpoint  of  market  asparagus,  where  earliness  is  of  great  importance, 
sandy  and  sandy  loam  soils  have  a  decided  advantage.  The  soil  should 
be  well  drained  since  the  asparagus  plant  will  not  endure  being  submerged 
for  any  great  length  of  time. 

The  preparation  of  the  soil  is  an  important  part  of  asparagus 
cultivation.  If  the  soil  is  not  naturally  deep  it  should  be  deeply 
plowed  and  subsoiled  so  as  to  give  a  bed  at  least  10  to  12  inches  in 
depth.  The  soil  should  be  as  thoroughly  freed  of  noxious  weeds  as 
possible  since  it  is  very  expensive  to  control  weeds  in  an  asparagus  bed. 
The  soil  should  be  thoroughly  harrowed  and  pulverized  before  planting 
the  asparagus  roots. 

Propagation. — Asparagus  plants  are  grown  from  seeds  sown  in  a 
well-prepared  seed  bed.  The  soil  for  the  seed  bed  should  be  rich  and 
the  seed  should  be  planted  as  soon  in  spring  as  the  ground  can  be  pre- 
pared so  as  to  have  benefit  of  a  full  growing  season.  The  seed  is  usually 
sown  in  drills  15  to  18  inches  apart  for  hand  cultivation,  or  30  to  36  inches 
for  horse  tillage,  and  it  is  covered  about  an  inch  deep.  Germination  is 
very  slow,  but  it  may  be  hastened  by  soaking  the  seed  in  warm  water  a 
day  before  planting.  After  the  plants  are  established  they  should  be 
thinned  to  stand  3  or  4  inches  apart  in  the  row.  Frequent  cultivation 
throughout  the  growing  season  is  desirable,  especially  when  weeds  are 
troublesome. 

One  year  old  roots  are  preferred  to  older  ones  for  transplanting.  The 
plants  may  be  dug  at  the  end  of  the  season  and  stored  for  use  the  next 
spring,  or  they  may  be  left  in  the  seed  bed  until  time  for  planting.     Since 


PERENNIAL  CROPS  135 

the  seedlings  vary  considerably  it  is  important  to  select  only  the  strong, 
healthy  plants.     The  weak  ones  should  be  discarded. 

Sowing  asparagus  seed  in  the  permanent  bed  has  been  recommended 
and  it  has  been  claimed  that  one  season's  time  is  gained.  Under  ideal 
conditions  there  may  be  some  advantage  in  this  method  since  trans- 
planting checks  the  growth  of  a  plant,  but  it  is  not  to  be  recommended 
for  the  average  grower.  There  is  less  chance  for  selection  of  strong 
healthy  roots  and  the  plants  would  not  be  as  evenly  spaced  under  this 
method  as  under  transplanting.  It  is  important  to  have  the  asparagus 
roots  planted  10  to  12  or  more  inches  deep  and  if  the  seed  were  planted 
in  a  trench,  there  would  be  danger  of  soil  washing  into  it  and  covering  the 
seed  to  such  a  depth  that  many  would  not  germinate.  This  would 
result  in  an  uneven  stand  of  plants. 

Another  method  of  starting  plants  is  to  sow  the  seeds  in  the  green- 
house or  hotbed  two  to  three  months  before  the  outdoor  planting  season. 
The  best  seedlings  are  transplanted  into  small  pots  and  are  shifted  into 
larger  pots  later.  By  this  method  plants  make  a  good  start  before  being 
set  in  the  field  and  large,  strong  plants  are  secured  the  first  season.  The 
amount  of  marketable  asparagus  available  during  the  early  life  of  the 
bed  would  be  increased  by  this  method. 

Manures  and  Fertilizers. — Asparagus  is  a  fairly  heavy  feeder  and, 
since  it  is  often  grown  on  poor  soils,  it  should  be  liberally  fertilized. 
Many  growers  in  the  East  apply  one  ton  or  more  of  high-grade  fertilizer 
to  the  acre,  using  a  mixture  containing  4  to  6  per  cent  ammonia,  6  to  8 
per  cent  phosphoric  acid  and  4  to  8  per  cent  potash.  Some  growers  use 
manure  in  addition  to  the  chemicals  and  others  depend  almost  entirely 
on  animal  manures.  It  is  thought  by  many  that  manure  is  essential  to 
asparagus,  especially  on  sandy  soils,  but  experimental  results  secured  in 
Massachusetts  by  Brooks  and  Morse  (17)  do  not  justify  this  belief. 
They  have  shown  that  on  sandy  soils  moderate  applications  of  chemical 
fertilizers  give  as  good  yields  as  manure  alone,  or  as  a  combination  of 
manure  and  chemicals.  The  yield  of  4  crops  of  asparagus  on  ^^o-acre 
plat,  given  an  application  of  10  tons  of  manure  per  acre  each  year,  was 
1,186  pounds.  On  an  adjoining  plat,  fertihzed  with  466  pounds  of  nitrate 
of  soda,  300  pounds  of  14  per  cent  acid  phosphate  and  346  pounds  of 
muriate  of  potash,  the  yield  was  1,265  pounds  of  asparagus.  Four  plats 
which  received  an  application  of  the  same  amount  of  nitrate  of  soda  and 
acid  phosphate  and  260  pounds  of  muriate  of  potash  to  the  acre  produced 
an  average  yield  per  plat  of  1,189  pounds.  Manure  at  the  rate  of  10 
tons  plus  466  pounds  of  nitrate  of  soda,  300  pounds  of  acid  phosphate  and 
260  pounds  muriate  of  potash  to  the  acre  produced  a  yield  of  1,142  pounds 
of  asparagus.  As  a  result  of  the  experimental  work  on  fertilizers  Brooks 
(17)  gives  the  following  conclusions: 


136  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

In  commercial  asparagus  growing  as  usually  carried  on  in  this  State  it  is  a 
common  practice  to  apply  what  appears  to  be  excessive  quantities  of  fertilizers. 

The  medium  amounts  of  the  several  plant-food  constituents  applied  in  these 
experiments  appear  to  have  furnished  the  different  leading  elements  of  plant-food 
in  as  large  (juantities  as  could  be  utilized  by  the  crop. 

These  medium  amounts  ai-e  at  the  following  rates  per  acre: 

Nitrate  of  soda 460  pounds 

Acid  phosphate 300  pounds 

Muriate  of  potash 260  pounds 

Nitrate  of  soda  at  the  rate  of  400  pounds  per  acre  in  connection  with  manure 
at  the  rate  of  10  tons  per  acre  increased  the  crop,  and  appears  to  be  the  maximum 
amount  which  proved  beneficial. 

Among  the  different  materials  employed  to  furnish  potash,  the  muriate, 
everything  considered,  proved  most  satisfactory. 

The  application  of  either  acid  phosphate  or  muriate  of  potash  witli  manure  at 
the  rate  of  10  tons  per  acre  appears  not  to  have  increased  the  crop. 

The  immediate  or  even  the  cumulative  effect  of  yearly  applications  of  manure 
in  increasing  the  humus  content  of  the  soil  does  not  appear  to  have  been  beneficial; 
in  other  words,  chemical  fertilizers  upon  this  sandy  soil  give  as  good  results  as 
manure. 

The  lack  of  benefit  which  can  be  attributed  to  humus  furnished  by  the  manure 
may  be  explained  in  part  by  the  practice  of  our  commercial  asparagus  growers  in 
allowing  the  tops  grown  subsequent  to  the  cutting  season  to  remain  on  the  ground 
to  be  worked  into  the  soil  the  following  spring. 

The  conclusion  appears  to  be  justified  through  observations  upon  the  root 
habit  of  the  asparagus,  that  yearly  replacement  of  roots  used  when  relatively 
young  for  the  storage  of  reserve  material  by  younger  roots  is  also  an  important 
factor  in  accounting  for  the  lack  of  beneficial  effects  resulting  from  humus 
furnished  by  manure.  The  roots  thus  replaced  decay,  thus  adding  to  the  organic 
matter  of  the  soil. 

The  season  of  application  of  nitrate  of  soda  does  not  appear  to  affect  the  rela- 
tive yield  of  commerical  asparagus  in  successive  10-day  periods  throughout  the 
season;  in  other  words,  the  cut  of  commercial  asparagus  during  the  early  part  of 
the  season  is  not  increased  by  either  small  or  large  applications  of  nitrate  as  early 
as  the  soil  can  be  worked. 

The  season  of  application  of  nitrate  of  soda  does  appear  to  influence  the  sus- 
ceptibility of  asparagus  to  rust,  which  I  am  convinced  is  reduced  by  the  applica- 
tion of  at  least  a  portion  of  the  nitrate  of  soda  at  the  close  of  the  cutting  season. 

Fertilizer  experiments  at  the  Maryland  Station  on  a  medium  loam 
soil  gave  results  similar  to  those  quoted  above.  However,  20  tons  of 
manure  produced  the  highest  yields  at  the  Maryland  Station  (See  Bull. 
151),  but  the  cost  of  manure  was  so  great  that  there  was  no  profit. 
Kainit  gave  the  highest  net  gains,  but  not  the  highest  yield.  Dissolved 
rock  at  the  rate  of  400  pounds,  kainit  400  pounds  and  nitrate  of  soda 
200  pounds  to  the  acre  produced  the  second  highest  yield  and  was  con- 
sidered the  best  fertilizer  under  average  conditions.     Muriate  of  potash 


PERENNIAL  CROPS  137 

and  kainit  gave  better  results  than  sulphate  of  potash.  Fertilizer  appli- 
cations made  in  the  spring  gave  better  results  than  when  they  were  made 
at  the  end  of  the  cutting  season. 

Salt. — Years  ago  salt  was  considered  essential  to  success  in  growing 
asparagus,  but  at  the  present  time  it  is  not  used  by  many  commercial 
growers.  It  certainly  is  not  essential  since  good  asparagus  is  produced 
without  its  use.  Some  writers  have  advocated  the  use  of  salt  to  keep 
down  weeds,  but  it  is  questionable  if  enough  could  be  used  to  destroy 
weeds  without  injurying  the  asparagus.  However,  Walker  (170)  reports 
results  of  an  experiment  in  Arkansas  which  indicate  that  salt  was  beneficial. 
The  salt  was  applied  at  the  rate  of  1,000  pounds  to  the  acre  on  a  plat 
3-14  acre  in  size.  The  yield  on  the  salt  plat  was  about  13.5  per  cent 
greater  than  on  the  check  plat.  This  increase  is  not  significant  since 
there  was  only  one  plat  and  the  results  are  for  just  one  year,  the  third 
year  of  life  of  the  bed.  Walker,  however,  believed  that  the  salt  was 
beneficial  as  the  following  statements  show: 

These  results  show  a  decided  difference  in  favor  of  the  salted  area  amounting 
to  13.5  per  cent,  or  a  difference  of  103.32  pounds  per  acre  for  the  planting  in  its 
third  year. 

The  difference  was  not  confined  to  the  spring  growth.  There  was  an  increased 
vigor  manifest  throughout  the  summer,  and  furthermore  a  noticeably  increased 
glaucous  appearance  in  the  salted  plants. 

In  the  quantity  used,  salt  proved  efficient  in  preventing  the  growth  of  weeds. 
Without  any  hoeing  whatever  but  very  few  weeds  appeared  and  those  late  in  the 
season.  While  in  the  unsalted  part  they  appeared  abundantly  as  the  season 
advanced  until  the  end  of  the  cutting  when  the  entire  planting  was  worked  over. 
While  the  beneficial  action  of  salt  was  attributed  in  part  to  its  effects  in  pre- 
venting weeds,  in  this  sandy  soil  there  appeared  to  be  an  effect  and  beneficial 
action  beyond  what  weeds  would  wholly  account  for. 

At  the  Maryland  Station  2,000  pounds  of  salt  seemed  to  have  no 
effect  on  keeping  down  weeds. 

Some  authorities  believe  that  chlorine  in  muriate  of  potash,  in  some 
way,  has  a  beneficial  effect  on  the  growth  of  asparagus  and  that  this 
accounts  for  the  higher  yields  from  muriate  than  from  sulphate  of  potash. 
There  is  no  experimental  evidence  to  justify  this  belief,  but  if  it  is  true 
there  is  reason  to  believe  that  salt  would  be  beneficial  in  the  absence  of 
muriate  of  potash  or  kainit.  The  consensus  of  opinion  is  that  salt  is  of 
very  little  importance  in  asparagus  growing,  especially  when  muriate 
of  potash  is  used  as  a  fertilizer. 

Planting  Asparagus  Roots. — One  year-old  roots  are  preferred  to  older 
ones,  but  these  should  be  of  good  size.  The  small  roots  should  be 
discarded,  for  if  planted  they  make  a  slow  growth.  At  the  Pennsylvania 
Experiment  Station  an  experiment  was  conducted  for  6  years  to  deter- 
mine the  effect  of  size  of  roots  on  yields  and  returns.  The  roots  were 
graded  into  three  sizes  and  designated  as  Grade  1,  Grade  2  and  Grade  3. 


138 


VEGETABLE  CROPS 


The  6  years'  results  of  this  experiment,  as  reported  in  Bull.  147:  33-34, 
is  given  in  Table  XV. 

Table  XV. — Effects  of  Size  of  Asparagus  Roots  on  Value  of  the  Crop  for 
6  Years  at  the  Pennsylvania  Experiment  Station 


1910. 

1911. 
1912. 
1913. 
1914. 
1915. 


Year 


Grade  1 


Grade  2 


Grade  3 


Total. 


$  106.42 

$ 

114.14 

$ 

58.66 

290.88 

265.92 

118.16 

582.72 

550.56 

444.96 

693.12 

648.48 

538.56 

816.72 

803.04 

694.32 

744.28 

742.28 

656  64 

$3,234.14 

$3 

,124.42 

$2 

,511.30 

A  glance  at  the  figures  in  Table  XV  will  show  that  it  would  have 
been  better  to  have  discarded  the  smallest  roots.  The  difference  between 
the  value  of  asparagus  produced  each  year  from  the  large  and  the  small 
roots  would  have  paid  for  the  best  and  largest  roots. 

In  most  sections  of  the  country  asparagus  roots  should  be  planted 
in  the  spring  as  early  as  conditions  will  allow,  but  in  the  South  they  are 
often  planted  in  the  autumn. 

Asparagus  roots  should  be  planted  at  least  8  to  10  inches  deep  since 
the  crown  develops  a  little  higher  each  year  and  unless  deep  planting  is 
practiced  it  is  only  a  few  years  until  the  crown  would  be  injured  by  the 
harrow  and  cultivator.  On  light  soils  planting  12  to  15  inches  deep  is 
not  uncommon.  In  planting  a  commercial  bed  deep  furrows  are  opened 
by  running  a  turnplow  two  or  four  times  where  each  row  is  to  be  located. 
The  rows  should  be  4  to  5  feet  apart  for  green  asparagus  and  6  to  8  feet 
apart  for  white  shoots,  since  in  producing  the  latter  the  soil  must  be 
mounded  over  the  row.  After  the  furrow  is  opened  the  roots  are  set 
18  to  30  inches  apart  in  the  row,  the  greater  distance  being  required  for 
large  growing  varieties  on  rich  soil.  The  roots  are  placed  in  the  bottom 
of  the  furrow  or  trench  and  at  first  covered  to  the  depth  of  2  or  3  inches. 
Soil  is  added  as  the  plants  grow  until  by  the  end  of  the  season,  the  furrow 
is  filled.  The  filling  in  of  the  furrow  is  done  as  the  land  is  cultivated. 
The  crowns  should  not  be  covered  to  the  extreme  depth  at  first  as  the 
young  shoots  may  be  smothered  before  they  reach  the  surface. 

Cultivation  and  Care. — During  the  first  season  a  crop  of  snap  beans, 
early  cabbage,  lettuce  or  other  hoe  crop  may  be  planted  between  the  rows 
of  asparagus.  Tall-growing,  or  long-season  crops  should  not  be  grown 
with  asparagus  on  account  of  shading  and  competition  for  moisture  and 
nutrients.     The  cultivation  required  by  the  asparagus  will  be  sufficient 


PERENNIAL  CROPS  139 

for  the  companion  crop  also  and  the  return  from,  such  a  crop  should. go  a 
long  way  toward  paying  the  cost  of  growing  both.  Cultivation  and  hand 
hoeing  should  be  given  as  often  as  necessary  to  keep  down  weeds  and  to 
conserve  soil  moisture. 


Fig.  S. — A  disk  asparagus  hiller  used  for  making  ridge  over  the  row  in  the  production  of 
white  shoots.      (Courtesy  of  U.  S.  Depaitment  of  Agriculture) . 

After  the  first  season  the  asparagus  bed  should  be  thoroughly  disked 
and  harrowed  each  spring.  If  the  fertiUzer  is  applied  in  the  spring  it 
should  be  done  before  the  land  is  harrowed  as  the  harrowing  mixes  it 
with  the  soil  and  gets  it  well  distributed.     Cultivation  and  hoeing  is 


Fig.  9. — A  type  of  asparagus  hiller  used  in  some  regions  for  making  a  ridge  over  the  row  in 
the  production  of  white  shoots.     (Courtesy  of  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture) . 

necessary  to  keep  down  weeds  after  the  bed  is  established  as  well  as 
during  the  first  season.  In  all  tillage  operations  care  must  be  exercised 
to  prevent  injury  to  the  crowns  of  the  plants.  Where  blanched  asparagus 
is  desired  it  is  necessary  to  mound  the  soil  over  the  rows  of  asparagus  in 
order  to  bleach  the  young  spears.     On  large  plantations  this  is  done  by 


140  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

means  of  a  plow,  a  disk  harrow  or  with  an  asparagus  hiller  similar  to  those 
shown  in  Figs.  8  and  9.  The  hilling  is  started  in  the  spring,  just  as  growth 
begins  and  continues  through  the  cutting  season  as  needed  to  keep  up 
the  mounds. 

After  the  cutting  season  the  mounds  are  leveled  and  flat  culture  is 
given  during  the  remainder  of  the  season.  If  any  of  the  fertilizer  is 
applied  at  the  end  of  the  cutting  season  it  should  be  applied  between 
the  rows  and  mixed  with  the  soil  by  cultivating.  It  should  be  borne 
in  mind  that  the  treatment  given  the  asparagus  bed  during  the  growing 
season  determines,  to  a  very  large  extent,  the  quahty  and  quantity  of 
the  crop  the  following  year.  The  plant  food  used  in  the  production  of 
shoots  in  the  spring  and  early  summer  is  manufactured  in  the  foliage  and 
stored  in  the  roots  during  the  previous  season's  growth.  For  this  reason 
a  strong,  healthy  growth  of  foliage  is  essential  to  a  good  yield  of  shoots. 
Removing  the  Tops. — Some  authorities  advise  cutting  and  burning 
the  asparagus  tops  as  soon  as  the  berries  turn  red,  and  this  is  the  practice 
in  many  regions.  It  is  argued  that  if  the  berries  are  allowed  to  ripen 
and  fall  off  the  seeds  will  germinate  and  the  young  plants  become 
troublesome.  If  the  tops  are  removed  while  they  are  still  green  the 
roots  are  deprived  of  a  large  amount  of  reserve  food  material.  The 
asparagus  tops  are  a  great  protection  to  the  roots  in  regions  where  low 
temperatures  occur,  since  they  hold  the  snows  and  thus  prevent  deep 
freezing  and  rapid  changes  in  the  soil  temperature.  For  this  reason,  it 
is  desirable,  under  most  conditions  in  the  North  to  leave  the  tops  stand 
until  spring  and  then  disk  them  into  the  soil. 

Morse  (98)  has  shown  that  early  removal  of  asparagus  tops  decreases 
the  amount  of  reserve  food  material  stored  in  the  roots  and  also  that  most 
of  the  material  used  in  growth  of  shoots  is  stored  in  the  roots  during  the 
previous  season.  Samples  of  tops  were  taken  for  analysis  in  August, 
after  blossoming  but  before  berries  were  formed,  and  in  October,  when 
the  stalks  had  turned  yellow.  To  determine  how  fast  translocation  took 
place  the  branches  were  removed  and  analj^zed  by  themselves.  Table 
XVI  gives  the  results  of  the  analysis  as  given  by  Morse  (Mass.  Bull.  171). 
A  study  of  Table  XVI  shows  that  both  the  sugar  and  protein  dis- 
appear with  ripening,  and  appear  to  be  the  only  groups  of  constituents 
subjected  to  translocation.  The  translocation  of  sugars  as  they  are 
formed  is  indicated  by  the  higher  percentages  in  the  stalks  than  in  the 
branches,  both  in  midsummer  and  in  autumn. 

Asparagus  tops  from  six  plants  were  gathered  November  4,  1914, 
when  they  were  golden  yellow  in  color  and  bare  of  needles.  Dry  matter, 
sugar  and  protein  were  deteimined  with  the  following  results: 

Dry  matter 49 .  45 

Sugar 4.08 

Protein 4 .  70 


PERENNIAL  CROPS 
Table  XVI. — Analysis  of  Asparagus  Tops 


141 


Summer  tops 

Fall 

tops 

Stems 

Branches 

Stems 

Branches 

Drv  inatter                              . .        

23.76 

28.43 

24.18 

32.15 

7.39 
7.94 

44.83 
1.38 

38.46 

7.31 
17.31 
29.76 

4.89 
40.73 

9.36 
4.47 

45.11 
1.35 

39.71 

8.51 

11.00 

Fiber                                                         .... 

32 .  02 

Fat                                           

5.23 

Nitrogen-free  extract 

43.24 

Total  sugar                                             .      .  . 

14.28 

15.90 

8.28 

12.50 

8.68 
14.15 
17.90 

2.99 

9.34 
15.86 
14.51 

8.76 

7.09 

Pentosans                                     

14.41 

Lignin                                  

21.74 

3.99 

Protein  nitrogen                                  

1.03 
0.24 

2.42 
0.35 

0.74 

1.56 

Amino  nitrogen                       

0.20 

On  the  transfciTcncc  of  sugar  and  protein  from  the  tops  to  the  roots 
Morse  (98)  says: 

It  is  probable  that  neither  sugar  nor  protein  is  completely  transferred  to  the 
root,  because  until  killed  by  frost  the  living  cells  must  still  contain  active  proto- 
plasm, and  its  supply  of  food. 

Analyses  of  asparagus  roots  show  that  most  of  the  reserve  material 
stored  in  them  in  the  fall  is  sugars.  Table  XVII  adapted  from 
Massachusetts  Bull.  171  gives  the  composition  of  roots  in  November 
1910  and  June  1911: 


Table 

XVII. 

—Composition 

OF 

Asparagus  Roots 

November, 
1910 

June, 
1911 

Dry  matter                          

21.10 

18.62 

Ash  in  dry  matter 

6.89 
12.44 
19.77 

1.77 
31.52 
10.96 
16.65 

8.93 

12.75 

Fiber 

23.66 

Fat 

1.63       • 

Sugar  in  dry  matter                               

23.20 

Pentosans                                       

11.66 

Lignin,  etc 

18.17 

142  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

On  the  results  of  these  analyses  Morse  says: 

There  was  a  pronounced  exhaustion  of  sugars  in  the  spring  growth,  but  none 
of  the  other  constituents,  instead,  the  other  constituents  were  increased  in  propor- 
tion to  the  loss  of  sugars.  Nitrogen,  which  would  be  also  indispensable  to  new 
growth,  was  not  consumed  at  the  rate  of  sugar  but  was  transferred  to  the  growing 
stalks  at  a  rate  which  left  its  proportion  in  the  parent  crown  almost  unchanged. 

To  determine  the  effects  of  various  fertilizer  treatments  on  the 
composition  of  asparagus  plants,  analyses  were  made  of  roots,  shoots  and 
tops  of  plants  grown  under  different  treatments.  On  the  results  of  these 
treatments  on  the  composition  of  the  roots  Morse  (98)  gives  the  following 
summary : 

Withholding  one  of  the  constituents  of  a  complete  fertilizer  from  the  annual 
top  dressing  was  accompanied  by  a  smaller  average  weight  of  roots  in  the  samples 
taken  from  the  plat  thus  treated.  Withholding  nitrate  of  soda  lessened  the 
percentage  of  nitrate  and  of  soda  in  the  roots;  withholding  acid  phosphate  pro- 
duced no  apparent  change  in  the  constituents  of  the  roots. 

An  increase  of  nitrate  of  soda  from  the  minimum  to  the  medium  amount  in  the 
top  dressing  caused  an  increase  in  the  percentage  of  nitrogen  in  the  dry  matter  of 
the  roots. 

An  increase  in  the  amount  of  muriate  of  potash  produced  some  increase  in  the 
percentage  of  potash  in  the  roots. 

The  fertihzing  constituents  which  were  stored  in  the  roots  over  winter 
appeared  to  be  nearly,  if  not  quite,  sufficient  for  the  full  development  of  the  suc- 
ceeding spring  crop.  There  was  evidence  of  a  small  intake  of  nitrogen  during 
the  cropping  season,  and  a  pronounced  absorption  of  lime  and  sulphuric  acid. 

Duration  of  a  Plantation. — The  length  of  time  an  asparagus  bed  will 
produce  profitable  yields  depends  upon  the  treatment  it  receives  and  to 
some  extent  upon  the  depth  of  planting.  The  deeper  the  roots  are 
planted  the  longer  it  will  take  for  the  crowns  to  come  near  enough  to 
the  surface  to  be  injured  by  harrowing.  A  well-established  bed,  which 
receives  good  cultivation  to  keep  down  weeds,  and  good  fertilizing  each 
year  should  produce  profitable  crops  for  15  years.  In  practice, 
however,  it  is  usually  found  desirable  to  renew  the  planting  about  every 
10  years.  When  an  old  bed  produces  nothing  but  small,  spindling  shoots 
it  should  be  plowed  up.  Of  course,  a  new  bed  should  have  been  started 
in  another  location  some  years  previous  to  the  time  the  old  bed  is 
destroyed,  in  order  to  have  a  supply  of  asparagus  every  year. 

Varieties. — True  varieties  of  asparagus  are  few  and  the  character- 
istics of  these  are  not  clearly  marked  since  there  is  a  constant  mixing 
of  blood  lines  due  to  crossing  in  the  field.  Reading  Giant,  Argenteuil 
and  Palmetto  are  three  good  varieties  resistant  to  the  asparagus  rust. 
A  type  of  asparagus  developed  by  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture 
and  known  as  "Washington"  is  more  rust  resistant  than  any  other 
asparagus  on  the  market.     A  named  strain  called  Mary  Washington  is 


PERENNIAL  CROPS  143 

the  best  of  the  Washington  strains  in  quality  and  commercial  value.  It 
is  quite  resistant  to  rust,  produces  large  shoots  which  do  not  branch  as 
quickl}^  as  most  varieties  of  asparagus.  The  buds  remain  closed  longer 
than  in  any  other  variety  or  strain. 

Asparagus  Rust. — The  asparagus  rust  {Puccinia  asparaqi)  is  the 
only  serious  disease  of  asparagus  in  the  United  States.  The  disease 
appears  on  the  plant  as  small  reddish-yellow  spots  on  the  main  stem 
and  on  the  branches.  As  the  disease  develops,  the  spots  enlarge  into 
patches  until  the  whole  plant  has  a  reddish-brown  or  orange  color, 
which  becomes  darker  later  in  the  season. 


Fig.  10. — A  field  of  asparagus  showing  the  effects  of  rust.  The  new  field  of  the  Reading 
Giant  Variety  on  the  left  was  grown  as  a  breeding  field  for  rust-resistance  work.  {Courtesy 
of  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture) . 

The  damage  caused  by  the  asparagus  rust  is  not  seen  directly  in 
the  marketed  product,  but  reduces  the  yield  by  weakening  the  plants 
during  the  summer  after  the  cutting  season  is  over  and  often  killing  them 
as  shown  in  Fig.  10.  No  practicable  control  measure  has  been  devel- 
oped for  this  disease  except  the  use  of  rust-resistant  varieties.  Spraying 
with  Bordeaux  mixture  has  been  thoroughly  tested  by  several  experiment 
stations  but  growers  have  not  taken  up  the  practice.  The  use  of  rust- 
resistant  varieties  is  the  only  solution  of  this  problem. 

Asparagus  Beetles. — Asparagus  is  attacked  by  two  species  of  beetles, 
the  common  asparagus  beetle  {Crioceris  asparagi  L.)  and  the  12-spotted 
asparagus  beetle  {Crioceris  duodecimpimctata  L.).  The  adult  of  the 
common  asparagus  beetle  is  slender,  blue-black  with  red  thorax  and  lemon- 
yellow  and  dark  blue  wing  covers.  The  length  of  the  body  is  about  '^'i 
inch.  The  full-grown  larva  is  dark  gray,  with  shiny  black  head  and  legs. 
The  twelve-spotted  asparagus  beetle  can  be  distinguished  from  the 
common  species  by  its  broader  back  and  orange-red  color.     Each  wing 


144  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

cover  is  marked  with  six  black  dots.  The  larva  of  this  species  is  orange 
in  color  and  about  three-tenths  of  an  inch  long. 

Injury  by  the  common  asparagus  beetle  is  due  to  the  work  of  both 
the  adults  and  larvae  to  the  tender  shoots,  and  to  the  plants  later  in  the 
season.  The  larvae  feed  upon  the  tender  portion  of  the  tops,  but 
the  beetles  gnaw  the  epidermis  or  rind  of  the  stems  as  well  as  the  tender 
portions.  This  injury  to  the  asparagus  tops  results  in  weakening  of  the 
roots.  The  chief  damage  inflicted  by  the  twelve-spotted  asparagus  beetle 
is  by  the  adult  upon  the  young  shoots  in  the  spring.  Later  both  the 
adults  and  larvae  feed  upon  the  berries. 

Among  the  control  measures  recommended  are:  (l).Keep  the  aspara- 
gus cut  in  the  spring  and  starve  the  beetles;  (2)  allow  chickens  and  ducks 
to  run  in  the  patch;  (3)  leave  a  few  plants  for  the  beetles  to  feed  upon 
and  spray  with  an  arsenical;  (4)  dust  the  plants  with  air-slaked  lime 
while  the  dew  is  on  to  destroy  the  larvae  of  the  common  asparagus  beetle, 
(5)  spray  or  dust  plants  with  arsenicals  after  the  cutting  season  to  kill 
both  adults  and  larvae  of  the  common  species;  (6)  clean  up  rubbish  in  the 
fall  and  (7)  brush  or  beat  off  the  larvae  of  the  common  asparagus  beetle 
with  a  stick  during  a  bright  warm  day.  None  of  the  methods  men- 
tioned will  destroy  the  larvae  of  the  twelve-spotted  beetle,  but  this  stage 
is  seldom  very  injurious.  Spraying  with  arsenicals  to  catch  the  adult  in 
the  spring  is  the  most  effective  method  of  control. 

Harvesting. — During  the  first  and  second  years  of  an  asparagus  bed 
no  shoots  should  be  cut,  and  even  during  the  third  year  the  cutting  season 
should  be  short.  After  a  bed  has  become  well  established  the  cutting 
sea.son  may  be  of  8  weeks'  duration. 

Asparagus  is  usually  harvested  every  day  during  the  main  portion 
of  the  cutting  season,  but  if  the  weather  is  cold  every  other  day,  or  even 
every  third  day  may  be  often  enough.  On  the  other  hand,  in  very  hot 
weather,  when  the  growth  is  very  rapid,  it  is  necessary  to  go  over  the 
bed  twice  a  day,  especially  where  blanched  shoots  are  desired.  The 
cutting  is  done  with  a  knife  made  especially  for  this  purpose.  In  cutting 
one  takes  hold  of  the  shoot  with  one  hand  and  with  the  other  hand  inserts 
the  knife  to  the  desired  depth,  an  inch  or  two  below  the  surface  of  the 
soil  for  green  asparagus,  and  severs  the  shoot  with  a  downward  stroke. 
Care  must  be  exercised  to  avoid  injuring  the  crown  and  the  other  shoots, 
hence  the  knife  should  be  inserted  almost  straight  down  beside  the  shoot, 
and  then  tilted  slightly  to  cut  off  the  stalk.  One  thrust  with  the  knife 
should  be  sufficient. 

The  workman  usually  cuts  two  rows  at  once.  The  shoots  are  placed 
in  a  basket  as  cut,  or  are  held  in  one  hand  until  it  is  full  when  they 
are  laid  on  one  of  the  two  rows  being  cut.  The  small  piles  are  then 
gathered  by  other  workers.  Whatever  method  is  used  the  shoots  should 
be  gathered  before  they  become  wilted. 


PERENNIAL  CROPS  145 

If  white  asparagus  is  desired  it  is  necessary  to  cut  the  shoots  soon 
after  they  force  their  way  through  the  surface  of  the  soil.  They  turn 
green  on  exposure  to  the  Hght.  White  shoots  are  cut  several  inches  below 
the  surface  of  the  mound  of  soil,  but  they  should  be  severed  an  inch  or 
two  above  the  crowns  to  avoid  injury  to  the  crown  or  roots. 

Since  asparagus  loses  its  quality  quickly  after  it  is  harvested  it  should 
be  prepared  and  put  on  the  market  as  soon  as  possible.  For  the  very 
highest  quality,  asparagus  should  be  cooked  within  a  few  hours  after 
being  cut,  but  this  is  impossible  except  where  it  is  produced  at  home. 
However,  the  local  gardener  has  a  decided  advantage  over  the  grower 
who  lives  a  long  distance  from  the  market. 

Washing  Asparagus  for  Market. — The  asparagus  shoots  are  usually 
taken  to  the  packing  shed  where  they  are  washed,  bunched  and  packed. 
This  preparation  may  be  done  in  almost  any  kind  of  a  building.  The 
necessary  equipment  and  supplies  consist  of  stationary  benches  or  tables, 
tubs  or  tanks,  brushes  and  wire  bottom  traj^s  for  washing,  machines  for 
bunching,  knives,  tape  or  raffia,  shallow  pans,  crates  or  boxes,  labels, 
nails  and  a  supply  of  water.  The  shoots  are  usually  washed  before 
bunching  and  this  can  be  done  easily  by  dousing  the  tray  of  shoots 
a  few  times.  Green  asparagus  does  not  always  need  washing,  but 
the  butt  ends  usually  require  some  rinsing  to  give  the  bunch  a  clean 
appearance.  This  is  sometimes  done  after  the  shoots  have  been  bunched. 
Some  growers  prefer  to  scrub  the  outside  of  the  bunch  of  shoots  after 
they  have  been  bunched  and  tied,  and  for  this  a  stiff  brush  is  used. 

Grading. — Asparagus  stalks  should  be  separated  into  grades  based 
on  size,  length  and  general  appearance.  Three  grades  are  made.  The 
large,  straight  stalks  of  good  length  and  free  from  injury  constitute 
the  best  grade  and  may  be  called  "fancy."  The  next  grade  consists  of 
medium  size*  straight  stalks  of  good  length  and  the  third  grade  consists 
largely  of  the  small  stalks,  but  may  include  any  marketable  stalks  which 
do  not  belong  in  either  of  the  other  two. 

The  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Markets  has  suggested  two  grades  for  asparagus: 
U.  S.  No.  1  and  U.  S.  No.  2  with  specifications  as  follows: 

U.  S.  No.  1  shall  consist  of  clean,  fresh  stalks  of  asparagus  which  are  not 
wilted  or  crooked;  which  do  not  show  broken  or  spreading  tips  and  which  are 
free  from  damage  caused  by  disease,  insects  or  mechanical  or  other  means. 

In  order  to  allow  for  variations  incident  to  proper  grading  and  handling,  not 
more  than  10  per  cent,  by  count,  of  any  lot  may  be  below  the  requirements  of 
this  grade  but  not  to  exceed  one-half  of  this  tolerance  shall  be  allowed  for  any 
one  defect. 

U.  S.  No.  2  shall  consist  of  stalks  which  do  not  meet  the  requirements  of  the 
foregoing  grade. 

As  used  in  these  grades: 

Free  from  Damage  means  that  the  asparagus  shall  not  be  injured  to  an  extent 
readily  apparent  upon  examination. 


146  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

In  addition  to  the  statement  of  grade,  any  lot  of  asparagus  maj^  be  classified 
as  Small,  Medium  or  Large,  if  80  per  cent,  by  count,  of  the  stalks  in  an}'  lot  con- 
form to  the  following  requirements  for  such  sizes : 

Small,  %  to  %Q  inch.     Medium  Ke  to  %  inch.     Large  over  f-i  inch. 

The  above  measurements  refer  to  the  diameter  of  the  stalks  measuring  at  a 
point  not  more  than  8  inches  from  the  tip. 

Bunching. — After  separating  the  shoots  into  the  different  grades  they 
are  placed  in  a  bunching  machine  with  the  heads  all  one  way,  only  one 
grade  being  put  into  a  bunch.  When  the  bunching  apparatus  is  full  the 
clamps  are  closed  and  the  asparagus  is  tied  near  each  end  with  tape  or 
raffia.  The  butts  are  cut  off  evenly  with  a  sharp  knife  and  the  bunches 
packed  immediately,  or  else  placed  in  a  cool  place  not  exposed  to  currents 
of  air.  The  size  of  bunches  range  from  one  pound  to  three  pounds  depend- 
ing upon  the  market.     For  local  retail  trade  small  bunches  are  preferred. 

Packing. — Several  types  of  packages  are  used  for  asparagus,  the  most 
common  one  being  a  box  having  solid  ends  or  heads,  and  made  especiall}^ 
for  this  product.  These  boxes  are  made  to  hold  one,  two  or  three  dozen 
bunches  set  on  end.  The  tops  of  these  boxes  are  2  to  3  inches  narrower 
than  the  bottoms  thus  preventing  the  bunches  from  shifting.  Small 
boxes  are  used  in  some  sections,  especially  for  a  fancy  product.  A 
common  type  of  box  is  made  with  heads  15  inches  wide  at  the  top  and  17 
inches  at  the  bottom,  and  with  the  side,  top  and  bottom  slats  26  inches 
long.  The  32-quart  strawberry  crate  is  used  in  some  sections  for  shipping 
asparagus  short  distances.  Twenty-four  bunches,  weighing  23^^  to  3 
pounds,  are  packed  in  each  crate,  the  bunches  being  placed  on  their  sides. 
This  type  of  package  does  not  show  off  the  asparagus  to  as  good  advan- 
tage as  the  asparagus  box  or  crate.  The  California  crate  is  one  of  the 
best.  It  is  (93^'^  by  11)  by  10^^  by  H^^q  inches  inside  measurements 
and  holds  one  dozen  bunches  of  asparagus.  The  South  Carolina  crate 
is  about  the  same  size  and  shape,  while  the  New  Jersey  crate  is  lai'ger 
{l4:}-2  by  19)  by  11^^  b}^  23  inches  inside  and  holds  2  dozen  bunches.  The 
Illinois  growers  use  boxes  having  20  to  24  compartments  similar  to  the 
divisions  of  an  egg  crate.  Each  compartment  contains  one  bunch  of 
asparagus.  The  boxes  are  6  by  8  by  20^,  6  by  8  by  21^^,  4  by  8  by  20% 
and  4  by  7  by  20%  inches  inside.  The  boxes  and  crates  are  often  Hned 
with  paper  to  prevent  excessive  drying  of  the  product.  A  thin  layer  of 
damp  moss  is  sometimes  used  in  the  bottom  of  asparagus  crates  and  the 
butt  ends  placed  on  this  to  keep  the  cut  surface  from  drying. 

RHUBARB 

Rhubarb  is  grown  for  its  large,  thick,  leafstalks  or  petioles,  which 
are  used  for  sauces  and  pies.  It  is  used  in  the  diet  in  the  place  of  fruit. 
Since  rhubarb  is  available  early  in  the  season  it  is  a  popular  article  of 
food. 


PERENNIAL  CROPS  147 

In  the  home  garden  the  rhubarb  bed  should  be  located  on  one  side  or 
one  end  along  with  the  other  perennials  so  that  it  will  not  interfere  with 
preparation  of  the  remainder  of  the  area.  In  commercial  plantings  it 
should  be  planted  in  a  block  by  itself  or  with  other  perennials  for  con- 
venience in  tillage  operations. 

History  and  Taxonomy. — Rhubarb  is  a  native,  of  Asia  (Siberia)  and 
has  been  grown  in  the  United  States  since  about  1800.  It  is  a  member  of 
the  buckwheat  family,  Polygonaceae,  and  the  genus  Rheum,  which 
contains  about  25  species.  Rheum  rhaponticum  or  common  rhubarb  has 
large  roots  branching  from  the  crown.  The  first  leaves  grow  from  the 
crown  at  or  near  the  surface  of  the  ground,  but  the  flower  stem  which 
appears  later  also  contains  leaves.  The  stem  leaves  are  smaller  in  size 
than  those  coming  direct  from  the  crown.  The  stem  grows  4  to  6  feet 
tall,  is  hollow,  and  has  conspicuous  nodes.  The  flowers  are  numerous  in 
successive    panicles,    very   small,    greenish-white,    on   slendor   pedicels. 

Soil  Preferences. — Rhubarb  can  be  grown  on  almost  any  type  of  soil, 
but  a  deep  rich  sandy  loam  is  considered  best.  Where  rhubarb  is  grown 
on  a  light  soil  it  should  be  heavily  manured  or  a  cover  crop  turned  under 
to  supply  humus. 

The  soil  should  be  plowed  8  to  10  inches  deep  and  thoroughly  pul- 
verized by  whatever  means  are  necessary.  This  may  include  disking, 
harrowing,  dragging  or  rolling. 

Manures  and  Fertilizers. — Unless  the  soil  is  already  rich  it  should  be 
heavily  manured,  or  fertilized  since  rhubarb  is  a  gross  feeder.  Where 
manure  is  available  a  yearly  application  of  20  tons  to  the  acre  may  be 
used  to  good  advantage.  This  is  usually  applied  in  the  fall  or  during 
the  winter.  If  manure  is  not  available  an  apphcation  of  1,500  to  2,000 
pounds  of  a  high-grade  fertilizer  to  the  acre  should  be  applied  each  year. 
On  sandy  loam  soils  a  mixture  containing  5  per  cent  ammonia,  8  per  cent 
phosphoric  acid  and  6  to  8  per  cent  potash  should  give  good  results.  On 
a  fairly  rich,  loam  soil  both  the  nitrogen  and  potash  may  be  reduced. 
Since  rhubarb  starts  growth  in  the  spring  from  the  reserve  food  stored  in 
the  roots,  during  the  preceding  season,  it  is  essential  that  sufficient  nutri- 
ents be  available  to  make  a  good  growth  of  foliage  after  the  harvest 
season. 

Propagation. — Rhubarb  is  easily  grown  from  seed,  but  as  only  a 
small  percentage  of  the  plants  produced  in  this  way  are  true  to  type  the 
more  common  method  of  propagation  is  by  division  of  the  roots.  Where 
seed  is  used  it  should  be  planted  in  rich,  well-prepared  soil  early  in  the 
spring.  The  rows  may  be  spaced  15  to  18  inches  apart  for  hand  culti- 
vation or  30  to  36  inches  apart  for  horse  cultivation.  It  requires  a  year's 
more  time  from  seed  than  from  roots.  When  propagating  by  division 
the  roots  may  be  cut  into  as  many  pieces  as  there  are  strong  eyes.  Each 
piece  of  root  should  have  at  least  one  eye  or  bud. 


148  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

Planting. — In  most  sections  of  ihv  North  planting;  is  usually  done  early 
in  the*  spring  although  fall  planting  is  practiced  in  the  milder  regions. 
Fall  planting  is  advised  where  deep  freezing  does  not  occur,  as  in  the 
regions  from  Maryland  south  as  far  as  the  crop  can  be  grown.  It  does 
not  thrive  well  in  the  South  except  at  high  altitudes.  The  pieces  of 
roots  are  usually  planted  3  to  4  inches  deep  in  rows  4  to  6  feet  apart  and 
about  2  to  3  feet  apart  in  the  row.  On  very  rich  soils  3  by  5  or  3  by  6 
feet  distance  should  be  used,  especially  for  the  Victoria  variety  which  is 
more  vigorous  than  the  Linnaeus.  The  two  varieties  mentioned  are  the 
onh'  important  ones  grown  in  the  United  States.  The  Linnaeus  produces 
pink  stalks  of  the  best  quality. 

Cultivation. — Good,  clean  cultivation  should  be  given  throughout 
the  season  to  keep  down  weeds  and  to  maintain  a  soil  mulch.  Large 
amounts  of  water  are  used  by  the  large  leaves  and  stems,  therefore 
moisture  conservation  is  of  great  importance.  Shallow  cultivation  should 
be  given  to  avoid  injuring  the  roots.  Hand  hoeing  is  necessary  to  keep 
down  weeds  in  the  row.  It  is  important  to  get  a  good  growth  after  the 
harvesting  season  since  a  large  part  of  the  spring  crop  is  produced  from 
reserve  food  stored  in  the  roots  or  crowns  during  the  latter  part  of  the 
preceding  season.  The  seed  stalks  which  appear  should  be  broken  off 
as  these  take  food  which  should  go  to  the  roots. 

Harvesting. — In  order  to  produce  strong  roots  the  plants  are  allowed 
to  grow  2  years  before  any  crop  is  harvested.  During  the  third  season 
from  planting  the  harvest  period  should  be  short  (4  to  5  weeks)  but  after 
this  the  period  may  be  extended  to  two  months,  if  the  stalks  continue 
to  be  of  good  size.  Harvesting  in  late  summer  is  not  advised  since 
removing  the  leaves  and  stalks  at  this  time  weakens  the  roots.  In 
harvesting  the  largest  stalks  are  pulled  (not  cut)  and  the  leaf  blades  are 
at  once  cut  off  to  prevent  wilting  of  the  stalk. 

The  rhubarb  stalks  arc  usually  bunched  and  tied,  but  when  the  price 
is  very  low  they  are  sometimes  sold  in  bulk.  When  bunched,  from  two 
to  eight  stalks  are  tied  together,  the  number  depending  upon  the  market. 
In  some  markets  rhubarb  is  sold  by  the  pound  while  in  others  it  is  sold 
by  the  bunch.  Rhubarb  is  sold  mainly  on  local  markets  and  is  hauled 
in  wagons  or  trucks  without  being  packed.  In  Southern  Illinois  rhubarb 
is  grown  on  quite  a  large  scale  for  shipping  to  Chicago  and  other  markets 
and  is  packed  in  crates  or  boxes  made  especially  for  the  purpose. 

ARTICHOKE 
The  artichoke,  or  globe  artichoke  {Cynara  scolymus)  is  a  perennial 
plant  grown  for  its  flower  head  or  flower  bud.  It  is  a  coarse,  thistle- 
like plant  of  the  sunflower  family,  native  of  the  Mediterranean  region 
and  common  in  the  wild  form  in  Southern  Europe  and  in  a  portion  of 
Asia.     This  vegetable  is  highly  prizGJ»k||jFrancc  and  in  some  other  Euro- 


PERENNIAL  CROPS  149 

pean  countries,  but  has  not  become  popular  in  the  United  States  although 
it  has  been  grown  to  a  limited  extent  in  the  South  for  over  a  hundred 
years. 

The  artichoke  is  tender  and  will  not  thrive,  without  winter  protection, 
in  regions  where  the  temperature  goes  much  below  freezing.  It  is  grown 
for  home  use  to  a  very  limited  extent  in  sections  of  the  South  Atlantic 
and  Gulf  Coast  states.  As  a  market  crop  it  is  produced  in  sections  of 
Southern  Louisiana,  below  New  Orleans,  and  in  California,  in  the  vicinity 
of  Tobin  and  Half  Moon  Bay  south  of  San  Francisco.  The  artichoke 
can  be  grown  in  the  colder  regions  if  the  plants  arc  given  good  protection. 

The  artichoke  is  a  heavy  feeder  therefore  should  be  planted  on  good 
rich  soil  and  liberally  manured.  Stable  manure  is  usually  used  in 
large  quantities  and  in  addition  commercial  fertilizers  are  often  applied. 

Planting. — The  artichoke  can  be  grown  quite  readily  from  seed  but 
the  plants  do  not  come  true,  therefore,  propagation  by  suckers  is  the 
more  common  method.  In  a  well-cared  for  bed  many  suckers  develop 
around  each  plant  and  since  it  is  advisable  to  leave  only  a  few  there  is 
always  an  abundance  of  material  for  starting  new  plantings.  Where 
seeds  are  used  to  start  a  bed  only  the  best  plants  should  be  selected. 
These  can  be  used  to  increase  the  planting  by  using  the  suckers. 

The  distance  of  spacing  varies  considerably,  depending  upon  the 
richness  of  the  soil  and  on  the  method  of  culture.  Ordinarily  the  rows 
are  4  to  5  feet  apart  with  the  plants  2  to  3  feet  apart  in  the  row.  In 
California  the  planting  distance  is  greater  than  this,  the  rows  being 
6  feet  or  more  apart. 

While  the  artichoke  is  perennial  the  planting  should  be  renewed 
every  2  or  3  years. 

Cultivation  and  Care. — Clean  cultivation  should  be  given  throughout 
the  growing  season  since  a  large  amount  of  moisture  is  required  to  produce 
a  crop. 

In  regions  where  severe  freezing  occurs  some  covering  is  necessary. 
Manure  has  usually  been  recommended,  but  Wellington  (174)  tried 
manure  at  Geneva,  New  York,  with  disastrous  results  to  the  plants. 
On  this  he  reports : 

Fresh  horse  manure  was  tried  on  the  Station  beds  but  with  disastrous  results 
in  that,  either  by  heating  or  by  retaining  too  much  water,  it  caused  the  heart  of 
the  crowns  to  rot,  with  consequent  death  to  the  plant.  Coal  ashes  were  then  used 
with  success.  The  foliage  is  semi-hardy  and  should  not  be  covered  until  late  in 
November,  and  the  covering  should  be  removed  in  spring,  in  late  March  or  early 
April.  Before  mounding  with  ashes  the  leaves  must  be  cut  back  to  within  a  foot 
of  the  ground  and  drawn  in  about  the  crown. 

Harvesting. — The  flower  heads  or  burs,  as  they  are  sometimes  called, 
should  be  harvested  while  they  are  young  and  tender.     They  are  cut 


150  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

with  an  inch  or  two  of  the  stem  attached,  and  for  market  theyare  graded 
and  packed  in  drums,  or  special  boxes. 

JERUSALEM  ARTICHOKE 

The  Jerusalem  artichoke  {Helianthus  tuherosus)  is  a  perennial  plant 
belonging  to  the  Compositae  or  sunflower  family.  It  is  a  native  of  North 
America,  probably  of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  and  was  cultivated  by  the 
Indians  at  the  time  the  early  settlers  arrived  in  the  United  States.  The 
Jerusalem  artichoke  is  grown  for  its  tubers,  which  resemble  potatoes. 

Large  yields  of  Jerusalem  artichoke  have  been  secured.  Newman 
(107)  reports  544  and  540  bushels  to  the  acre  at  two  locations  on  the 
grounds  of  the  South  Carolina  Agricultural  College.  He  reports  that 
while  every  effort  was  made  to  remove  all  of  the  tubers  from  the  ground 
yet  those  left  came  broadcast  over  the  land  the  next  spring.  A  good 
method  of  getting  rid  of  the  tubers  left  in  the  soil  is  to  turn  hogs  into  the 
patch. 

The  Jerusalem  artichoke  is  propagated  about  the  same  way  as  pota- 
toes, the  tubers  being  planted  whole  or  cut.  The  rows  are  spaced  about 
4  feet  apart,  pieces  or  whole  tubers  being  dropped  18  inches  apart  and 
covered  about  3  inches  deep. 

The  tubers  are  boiled  and  used  like  potatoes  and  are  also  highly 
esteemed  as  a  salad.  It  is  not  a  common  practice  to  dig  and  store  the 
crop  in  the  South,  since  it  keeps  better  in  the  ground.  Because  of 
the  large  yield  the  Jerusalem  artichoke  is  a  cheap  hog  food  and  when 
grown  for  this  purpose  there  is  no  expense  of  harvesting  since  the  hogs 
will  root  them  out  if  given  the  run  of  the  field. 

SEA-KALE 

Sea-kale  {Cramhe  rnaritima)  is  a  hardy  perennial  of  the  Cruciferae  or 
mustard  family,  native  of  Western  Europe.  It  is  grown  for  its  young 
leaves  and  shoots,  which  are  blanched  with  earth  or  with  a  sea-kale  pot. 
A  large  flower  pot,  with  the  hole  in  the  bottom  plugged,  will  serve  the 
purpose  of  a  regular  kale  pot. 

Sea-kale  may  be  propagated  by  seeds  or  by  cuttings.  When  seeds 
are  used  they  are  planted  in  a  well-prepared  seed  bed  to  the  depth  of 
about  one  inch.  After  the  plants  are  well  up  they  are  thinned  to  5  or 
6  inches  apart  in  the  row  and  given  good  cultivation  and  care  during 
the  season.  The  following  spring  they  are  taken  up  and  planted  in 
the  permanent  bed.  When  cuttings  are  used  pieces  of  roots  4  to  5 
inches  long  are  planted  in  their  permanent  location  early  in  the  spring, 
spacing  them  3  feet  each  way. 

The  bed  should  be  well  fertilized  each  year,  either  with  manure 
or  with  chemicals.  The  care  of  the  bed  should  be  about  the  same  as 
described  for  rhubarb.     At  the  close  of  the  season  the  dead  leaves  are 


PERENNIAL  CROPS  151 

cleared  away  and  the  crowns  of  the  plants  are  covered  with  a  mulch  of 
compost  or  manure. 

Shoots  from  plants  which  have  made  a  strong  growth  may  be  har- 
vested for  a  short  period  during  the  second  season,  but  a  full  crop  should 
not  be  taken  until  the  plants  are  three  years  old.  The  young  shoots  are 
cut  when  4  to  5  inches  tall  and  used  much  in  the  same  manner  as  aspara- 
gus. The  cutting  season  usually  lasts  3  to  6  weeks.  This  vegetable  is 
very  popular  in  England  but  is  little  grown  in  the  United  States. 

UDO 

Udo  is  a  rank-growing  perennial  of  the  Araliaceae  or  ginseng  family 
and  is  probably  a  native  of  Japan,  where  it  is  grown  for  its  succulent 
shoots.  It  has  been  known  to  nurserymen  in  this  country  for  25  to  30 
years  under  the  name  Aralia  cor  data  Thunb.  Within  the  past  10  or  15 
years  it  has  been  grown  experimentally  in  America  as  a  food  plant.  The 
plant  dies  down  in  the  fall  after  the  first  frost  and  comes  up  again  in  the 
spring.  It  grows  to  a  height  of  10  feet  or  more  in  rich  soil,  producing  a 
mass  of  large,  green  leaves  and  long,  loose  flower  clusters,  sometimes  3 
feet  in  length. 

Culture. — On  the  culture  of  udo,  Fairchild  (45)  gives  the  following: 

As  a  home  garden  vegetable  the  experience  of  the  past  10  years  indicates 
that  the  ndo,  when  once  started,  is  a  very  easy  plant  to  grow.  Amateurs  have 
experienced  some  difficulty  in  growing  udo  from  seed,  but  anyone  with  greenhouse 
or  cold  frame  facilities  should  have  no  difficulty  with  fresh  seed,  if  it  is  sown  },i 
inch  deep  in  March  or  April  in  what  is  known  as  potting  soil,  consisting  of  1  part 
loam,  1  part  leaf  soil  or  mold,  and  1  part  sand.  In  two  or  three  weeks  the  seeds 
should  be  up.  From  the  flats  seedhngs  can  be  planted  out  in  the  ground  as 
soon  as  thy  are  3  or  4  inches  high,  or  they  can  be  potted  off  and  later  set  out  in 
the  field.  Seedlings  started  in  boxes  or  flats  in  March  will  often  grow  4  or  even 
6  feet  tall  the  first  year  and  will  flower  freely  if  not  prevented  from  doing  so,  as 
they  should  be,  by  cutting  or  pinching  out  the  round  flower  buds  in 
midsummer.    .    .    . 

The  udo  is  a  coarse  feeder,  with  great  succulent  roots  which  travel  rapidly 
through  loose  rich  soil.  They  can  consume  astonishing  amounts  of  nitrogenous 
manures  and  turn  them  into  succulent  shoots.  Planting  udo  on  poor,  dry  lands 
is  not  recommended,  for,  though  it  would  probably  live,  it  would  make  no  growth 
there.    .    .    . 

Three  and  a  half  feet  apart  is  close  enough  for  plants  of  the  udo  to  stand,  for 
as  they  grow  older  the  crowns  become  at  least  a  foot  across.  On  very  rich  soil 
the  writer  has  found  4  feet  not  too  great  a  distance.  When  grown  even  with  this 
space  between  them  the  plants  will  touch  each  other  and  make  horse  cultivation 
impossible  in  late  summer. 

Seedling  plants  have  often  produced  by  the  following  spring  roots  large  enough 
to  give  a  small  crop  of  shoots,  but  it  is  advisable  to  delay  cutting  until  the  second 
year  in  order  not  to  weaken  the  plants  at  first .... 


152  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

The  udo  has  done  best  in  the  moist  regions  of  the  country,  especially  in  the 
New  England  states,  Canada  and  the  Atlantic  Coast  states  as  far  south  as  the 
Carolinas,  in  the  rainy  region  of  Puget  Hound  and  in  the  trucking  sections  of 
California,  about  Sacramento.  The  fact  that  it  dies  down  in  the  winter  and  can 
be  covered  makes  it  possible  to  grow  it  where  temperatures  go  far  below  zero. 
A  temi)erature  of  —  17  degrees  F.  for  a  few  days  has  not  injured  it  in  the  least. 

Blanching. — The  green  stems  of  the  udo  are  rank  in  flavor  and  are 
usually  blanched  for  use  as  food.  On  light,  muck  soil  near  Antioch, 
California,  according  to  Fairchild,  excellent  udo  has  been  produced 
by  mounding  up  the  hills  with  soil  as  is  done  with  asparagus  in  the 
same  region.  On  heavy  soils  this  method  is  not  satisfactory  as  the 
shoots  are  slow  in  coming  through.  The  use  of  large  drain  tile,  which 
has  one  end  plugged  with  cement  is  recommended  by  Fairchild  for  blanch- 
ing udo  in  a  small  garden.  Another  method  suggested  is  to  use  a  deep 
box  or  small  half  cask  from  which  the  bottom  has  been  removed  and  fill 
it  with  sand  or  such  light  material  as  sifted  coal  ashes. 

Shoots  of  udo  produced  from  3-year  old  plants  should  be  12  to  18 
inches  long  and  1  inch  or  1}^  inches  in  diameter  at  the  base. 

Preparation  for  the  Table. — Fairchild  (45)  states  that  the  flavor  of 
udo  is  distinctly  aromatic. 

When  properly  prepared  it  is  one  of  the  most  delicious  of  vegetables,  but  unless 
properly  cooked  it  is  sure  to  meet  with  ridicule.  The  reason  for  this  lies  in  the 
fact  that  its  stems  contain  a  resinous  substance  which  gives  them  a  decided  flavor 
of  pine  when  tasted  raw. 

It  is  a  simple  culinary  practice  to  boil  strong-flavor  vegetables  in  two  (or 
even  three)  waters,  and  this  is  advisable  as  a  general  recommendation,  although 
when  used  for  soup  it  does  not  appear  to  be  always  necessary.  An  hour's  stay 
in  ice  water  will  remove  the  resin  from  the  shoots,  provided  they  are  cut  into  thin 
slices  or  shavings. 

He  suggests  the  following  recipes : 

Udo  on  Toast. — Peel  the  shoots  and  drop  them  into  cold  water.  Cut  them 
into  4-inch  lengths.  Boil  them  in  salt  water  for  10  minutes,  then  change  the 
water,  adding  a  fresh  quantity  of  salted  water  and  boiling  until  quite  soft.  Pre- 
pare a  white  sauce,  such  as  is  used  for  cauliflower  or  asparagus,  put  the  udo  in  it, 
and  allow  it  to  simmer  until  thoroughly  soft.  Serve  on  toast  in  the  usual  way. 
If  there  is  too  much  of  the  pine  flavor,  as  there  may  be  if  the  shoots  are  not 
thoroughly  blanched,  a  second  change  of  water  will  remedy  this. 

Udo  Salad. — Peel  the  shoots,  cut  them  into  3-inch  lengths,  and  then  split 
them  into  thin  shavings,  letting  these  fall  into  ice  water  as  they  are  made.  Allow 
them  to  soak  in  the  water  for  a  half  hour  or  an  hour,  so  as  to  remove  the  resinous 
material  in  them.  Serve  with  a  French  dressing  of  pepper,  salt,  oil,  and  vinegar. 
Do  not  dress  the  shavings  until  just  before  serving,  as  they  become  stringy  on 
standing  in  oil. 


PERENNIAL  CROPS  153 

Udo  Soup. — Remove  the  skin  from  the  shoots.  Cut  in  pieces  one-half  inch 
long  and  wash  thoroughly  in  cold  water.  Cook  until  tender  and  mash  through  a 
colander.  Add  a  pint  and  half  of  milk,  one-half  pint  of  cream,  two  table- 
spoonfuls  of  butter,  and  one  tablespoonful  of  flour,  mixing  the  flour  and  butter 
until  smooth.  Season  with  pepper  and  ^It.  (Recipe  for  one  bunch  of  udo; 
enough  for  five  persons.) 


CHAPTER  XVIII 
POTHERBS  OR  GREENS 

Spinach  Kale 

New  Zealand  Spinach  Mustard 

Orach  Collards 

Chard  Dandelion 

Potherb  crops  are  grown  for  their  foUage,  therefore,  they  must 
make  rapid  growth  in  order  to  be  crisp.  All  of  the  crops  discuSvSed 
in  this  chapter  are  of  easy  culture  and  are  in  greatest  demand  in  the 
spring  and  fall.  In  fact,  chard  and  New  Zealand  spinach  are  the  only 
crops  in  this  list  which  thrive  during  the  warmer  portion  of  the  growing 
season,  the  others  being  grown  as  early  spring  and  late  fall  crops  in  the 
Nor.th  and  mainly  as  winter  crops  in  the  South. 

To  the  plants  listed  many  others  might  be  added.  Some  crops  used 
for  greens  such  as  turnips,  beets  and  sea-kale  are  discussed  in  other 
chapters.  Many  wild  plants  such  as  dandelion,  several  species  of 
docks,  lambs  quarter,  wild  cress,  poke-weed,  milk-weed  and  others 
are  used  as  greens. 

The  need  for  green  food  has  been  greatly  emphasized  during  recent 
years  due  to  the  increase  in  knowledge  of  the  value  of  the  essential 
salts  found  in  green  plants,  and  especially  because  such  plants  are  rich 
in  vitamins. 

SPINACH 

Spinach  is  the  most  important  of  the  potherbs  grown  in  the  United 
States  and  it  is  increasing  in  popularity  each  year.  According  to  the 
1920  Census  Report,  10,027  acres  were  grown  for  sale  in  1919  and  the 
value  was  $1,715,869.  The  value  per  acre  was  $171.  The  growth  of 
the  industry  from  1918-19  to  1920-21  is  illustrated  by  the  carlot  move- 
ment during  these  three  years  as  reported  by  the  U.  S.  Department  of 
Agriculture,  April  1,  1922,  Table  XVIII  gives  the  carlot  movement  from 
the  important  producing  states  and  the  total  for  all  states. 

The  increase  in  production  of  spinach  is  probably  due  to  the  fact 
that  its  importance  in  the  diet  is  becoming  better  understood.  Spinach 
is  rich  in  iron  and  is  said  to  be  rich  in  vitamins.  The  use  of  spinach 
in  children's  diet  is  advocated  by  dieticians  and  physicians. 

154 


POTHERBS  OR  GREENS 
Table  XVIII. — Carlot  Shtpments  of  Spinach  1918-1921 


155 


Season  of 

States 

1918-19 

1919-20 

1920-21 

California                                  

283 

195 

979 

1,431 

2,913 

321 
215 
3 
934 
902 

2,396 

145 

Maryland 

346 
259 

Texas 

Virginia                                          

1,459 
2,444 

Total 

4,705 

History  and  Taxonomy. — Spinach  is  a  native  of  Asia  and  was  probably 
introduced  into  Europe  in  the  twelfth  or  thirteenth  century.  It  was 
known  in  America  early  in  the  nineteenth  century,  but  there  are  no 
records  showing  when  it  was  introduced. 

Spinach  is  an  annual  plant  belonging  to  the  Chenopodiaceae  or 
goosefoot  family  and  is  therefore  closely  related  to  the  beet.  The 
genus  Spinacia  contains  only  a  few  species.  The  two  types  of  spinach, 
prickly-seeded  and  smooth-seeded  are  considered  by  some  authorities 
as  belonging  to  the  same  species,  while  others  consider  them  two  species. 
Spinach  is  mostly  dioecious  and  after  flowering  the  male  plant  usually 
dies,  while  the  female  plant  continues  to  grow  and  ripen  its  seed. 

Soil  Preferences. — Spinach  can  be  grown  on  any  good  soil,  but 
for  an  early  spring  crop  a  sandy  loam  is  preferred  and  this  type  is  also 
used  for  the  fall  crop.  Rich  loams  and  silts  are  also  considered  good 
for  this  crop.  In  some  sections  of  the  North,  spinach  is  grown  to  a 
considerable  extent  on  muck  soil  and  this  is  considered  excellent,  espe- 
cially when  the  crop  is  grown  for  canning.  When  the  crop  is  grown  on 
muck  soil  there  is  less  grit  in  the  canned  product  than  when  the  crop  is 
produced  on  mineral  soils.  The  soil  for  spinach  should  be  rich  and  fairly 
moist  but  well  drained. 

In  the  Norfolk,  Virginia,  region  where  spinach  is  grown  on  a  large 
scale  as  a  winter  crop  the  soil  is  thrown  up  into  low  flat  beds  5  to  6  feet 
wide  with  a  space  18  to  24  inches  wide  between  the  beds.  The  use  of 
beds  is  mainly  for  the  purpose  of  drainage  since  the  land  is  flat.  The  soil 
should  be  thoroughly  prepared  as  for  any  other  small  cultivated  crop. 

Manures  and  Fertilizers. — ^The  soil  should  be  well  supplied  with 
humus,  therefore,  either  manure  or  a  green-manure  crop  is  important. 
However,  it  is  best  to  apply  fresh  manure  to  some  crop  preceding  spinach 
on  account  of  weed  seeds.  In  the  Norfolk  region  commercial  fertilizer 
is  used  on  spinach  and  a  heavy  application  is  considered  desirable. 
Fifteen  hundred  to  2,000  pounds  to  the  acre   of   fertilizer   containing 


156  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

8  to  10  per  cent  ammonia,  5  to  G  per  cent  phosphoric  acid  and  2  to  4 
per  cent  potash  is  quite  common.  Some  growers  use  as  much  as  2,500 
pounds  of  high-grade  fertiUzer  to  the  acre,  but  it  does  not  seem  possible 
that  this  amount  could  be  used.  At  the  Rhode  Island  Station  the 
residues  from  16  tons  of  manure  and  ^  ton  of  a  4-10-2  fertilizer,  applied 
to  tomatoes  in  the  spring,  plus  }'2  ton  of  a  4-7-6  fertilizer  applied  to  the 
spinach  has  produced  a  considerably  higher  yield  than  the  residue  of  32 
tons  of  manure  applied  to  tomatoes  in  the  spring.  By  adding  nitrogen 
to  the  fertilizer  applied  to  the  spinach  the  yield  was  increased  25  per  cent 
over  the  manure  treatment.  The  fertilizer  plus  extra  potash  increased 
the  yield  21  per  cent  over  32  tons  of  manure  applied  to  the  tomatoes, 
which  preceded  the  spinach.  (See  Table  IV.)  On  muck  soil  a  mixture 
containing  2  to  4  per  cent  ammonia,  8  per  cent  phosphoric  acid  and  8  to 
10  per  cent  potash  is  often  applied  at  the  rate  of  1,000  to  1,500  pounds 
to  the  acre. 

In  the  vicinity  of  Norfolk,  Virginia,  it  is  the  common  practice  to 
apply  the  fertilizer  in  several  applications  (three  to  five)  during  the  grow- 
ing season.  On  light,  porous  soils  it  may  be  desirable  to  apply  the 
fertilizer  at  intervals  during  the  period  of  growth  rather  than  to  apply 
all  at  one  time,  but  it  is  doubtful  if  this  is  necessary  on  most  soils. 

Planting. — Spinach  is  planted  for  a  winter  crop  in  the  South  and 
in  California,  while  in  most  other  sections  it  is  planted  mostly  for  fall 
and  early  winter  use  although  early  spring  planting  is  practiced  to  a 
considerable  extent.  For  the  fall  crop  the  seed  may  be  planted  from 
July  to  September,  depending  upon  the  locality.  Spinach  is  hardy  and 
will  withstand  quite  severe  freezing,  if  it  is  well  established  before  cold 
weather  occurs.  For  the  spring  or  early  summer  crop  the  seed  should 
be  planted  as  soon  as  the  soil  conditions  will  allow.  In  the  vicinity 
of  BufTalo,  New  York,  spinach  seed  is  often  planted  early  in  March. 

In  the  home  garden  spinach  seed  is  usually  planted  by  hand,  but 
in  commercial  plantings  seed  drills  are  used.  Gang  drills,  four  or  more 
drills  attached  to  a  common  frame,  are  used  by  growers  in  many  sections. 
At  Norfolk,  Virginia,  the  rows  are  spaced  10  inches  apart,  while  in  many 
other  sections  the  spacing  is  14  or  15  inches  to  allow  for  hand  cultivation 
with  wheel  cultivators.  The  amount  of  seed  varies  with  the  spacing 
of  the  rows,  15  to  30  pounds  to  the  acre  being  used.  Most  growers  sow 
about  20  pounds. 

Thinning. — After  the  spinach  plants  have  become  well  established 
they  are  thinned  to  stand  about  4  to  6  inches  apart.  In  some  sections 
this  is  done  with  a  long  handled  spoon  and  is  called  "spooning  out." 
In  other  regions  the  plants  are  thinned  with  a  narrow  hoe.  Some  hand 
work  is  necessary  to  remove  plants  that  are  very  close  together.  In 
the  home  garden  the  young  plants  removed  in  thinning  are  usually  used 
as  food. 


POTHERBS  OR  GREENS 


157 


Cultivation. — Clean  shallow  cultivation  is  given  spinach,  and  this  is 
accomphshed  with  hand  cultivators,  or  with  horse-drawn  implements. 
On  muck  soils  the  scuffle  hoe  and  the  wheel  hoe  with  the  blade  attach- 
ments are  used  to  a  considerable  extent.  At  Norfolk,  Virginia,  novel 
weeder-like  cultivators  are  sometimes  used  and  one  horse  or  one  mule  pulls 
two  of  the  implements  as  shown  in  Fig.  11.  The  horse  or  mule  walks  in 
the  space  left  between  the  beds  so  that  there  is  no  danger  of  injuring  the 
plants  by  tramping  on  them. 


Fig.  11. — Two  cultivators  fastened  together  for  use  in  cultivating  spinach  on  raised  beds 
in  the  vicinity  of  Norfolk,  Virginia.     {Courtesy  of  Virginia  Truck  Experiment  Station). 


Varieties. — Kinney  (83)  classified  the  varieties  of  spinach  into  four 
groups  as  follows: 

Group  1.  Norfolk  or  Bloomsdale  Spinach.  Plants  more  or  less  vase-form, 
leaves  broad,  thick  and  supported  by  their  stalks  so  that  they  do  not  naturally 
rest  upon  the  ground.     Blossom  stalks  appear  at  an  early  date. 

Bloomsdale  and  Norfolk  Savoy  are  important  varieties  belonging  to  this  group. 

Group  2.  Round-leaved  Spinach.  Plants  compact  in  habit  of  growth  with 
leaves  conspicuously  rounded  in  outline  and  formed  close  to  the  ground.  Tissue 
firm,  color  dark  green,  blossom  stalks  formed  rather  tardily.  A  slow-growing 
spinach  as  compared  ^vith  the  other  types. 

Victoria  is  probably  the  best  known  variety  belonging  to  this  group. 

Group  3.  Thick-leaved  Spinach.  Plants  large,  leaves  long  and  spreading  out 
upon  the  ground,  ends  and  lobes  of  leaves  pointed.  A  highly-prized  type  of 
spinach  both  for  spring  and  fall  planting  on  account  of  large  size  and  rapid  growth. 

Viroflay,  Thick-leaved  Round  and  Eskimo  or  Giant  Thick-leaved  belong  to 
this  group. 


158  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

Group  4.  Prickly  Seeded  Spinach.  Plants  variable,  leaves  often  with  long, 
slender  stalks  and  rather  narrow  blades.     Seed  with  horn-like  projections. 

Varieties  in  this  group  are  supposed  to  be  more  hardy  to  cold  than  those  in 
the  other  groups.     The  best  known  variety  is  Prickly  Seeded  or  Winter. 

The  varieties  of  spinach  most  commonly  grown  in  commercial  plant- 
ings are  Bloomsdale,  Viroflay,  Savoy,  Victoria  and  Giant  Thick-leaved, 
Prickly  Seeded  or  Winter  is  grown  to  some  extent,  but  is  discriminated 
against  on  the  market  on  account  of  its  appearance. 

Two  other  groups  (5)  New  Zealand  spinach  and  (6)  Mountain  spinach 
or  Orach  are  given  by  Kinney,  but  since  these  do  not  belong  to  the  genus 
Spinacia  they  are  discussed  under  their  own  names. 

Spinach  Blight  or  Mosaic. — The  most  serious  disease  of  spinach  is 
blight  or  mosaic  which  is  very  destructive  in  many  regions,  especially 
in  Virginia.  Plants  affected  by  this  disease  show  a  slight  yellowing  and 
malformation  of  the  young  leaves  in  the  early  stages.  In  later  stages 
the  plant  stops  growing  and  the  leaves  are  mottled.  Some  of  the  older 
leaves  may  turn  brown  and  wither.  Leaves  of  plants  affected  with 
mosaic  are  slightly  brittle  and  the  blade  curves  backward  toward  thc^ 
base  of  the  plant, 

McClintock  and  Smith  (91)  have  shown  that  the  disease  is  carried 
from  diseased  to  healthy  plants  by  insects,  especially  the  aphis.  It  was 
thought  that  spraying  to  control  this  insect  would  control  the  mosaic, 
but  destroying  the  insect  has  not  proven  practicable. 

Development  of  a  mosaic-resistant  strain  seems  the  most  promising 
means  of  control  of  this  disease.  Work  on  this  problem  has  been  under- 
way at  the  Virginia  Truck  Experiment  Station  for  several  years  and  a 
strain  has  been  developed  which  is  claimed  to  be  quite  resistant.  Smith 
(138)  reports  that  the  strain  produced  by  crossing  a  type  secured  from 
Manchuria  by  F,  N.  Meyer  with  Savoy,  Round  Thick-leaf  Winter, 
Flanders  and  Long  Standing  has  resulted  in  the  production  of  a  disease- 
resistant  variety  which  has  been  named  Virginia  Savoy.  At  the  Virginia 
Truck  Experiment  Station  only  0.64  per  cent  of  the  Virginia  Savoy 
plants  were  affected  with  mosaic  in  the  autumn  of  1920,  while  in  adjacent 
beds  10.57  per  cent  of  the  commercial  Savoy  was  affected. 

Spinach  Aphis  (Myzus  persicae). — This  insect  is  a  pale  yellowish- 
green  plant  louse  that  often  causes  serious  injury  to  the  spinach  crop. 
It  injures  the  spinach  by  sucking  the  juice  out  of  the  leaves  and  also 
carries  spinach  blight  from  diseased  to  healthy  plants.  Since  this 
insect  lives  largely  on  the  underside  of  the  leaves  it  is  very  difficult 
to  control  by  spraying.  It  is  claimed  by  Smith  (138)  that  the  Manchuria 
spinach  is  distasteful  to  the  spinach  aphis,  and  that  these  insects  are  much 
less  abundant  on  the  Virginia  Savoy  than  on  the  commercial  Savoy. 

Dusting  with  hydrated  lime  containing  2  to  3  per  cent  nicotine  gave 
fairly  good  control  of  plant  lice  on  spinach  and  other  crops  at  the  Virginia 


POr HERBS  OR  GREENS 


159 


Truck  Experiment  Station  (190).  The  quantity  of  dust  required  varied 
from  20  to  40  pounds  to  the  acre.  Based  on  an  average  of  four  species 
of  plant  lice  2  per  cent  nicotine  dust  killed  82  per  cent  of  the  insects  and 
3  per  cent  killed  89.3  per  cent. 

Beet  Leaf  Miner  iPegomyia  hyoscyami). — This  insect  is  a  serious 
pest  of  early  spinach  in  many  sections  of  the  United  States.  For  dis- 
cussion see  under  "Beet." 

Harvesting. — Spinach  may  be  harvested  from  the  time  the  plants 
have  five  or  six  leaves  until  just  before  the  seed  stems  develop.  Of 
course,  a  larger  yield  is  secured  if  the  plants  are  allowed  to  develop 
to  full  size  than  if  cut  when  they  are  small.  Medium  to  large  sized 
plants  are  preferred,  if  the  leaves  are  tender.  In  commercial  plantings 
two  or  more  cuttings  are  sometimes  made,  the  largest  plants  being  cut  first. 


Fig.  12. — A  home-mude  tool  for  cutting  spinach. 

Spinach  should  be  harvested  by  cutting  the  tap  root  just  below  the 
lower  leaves.  The  cutting  may  be  done  with  a  long,  sharp  knife,  with  a 
hoe,  with  the  blades  of  hand  cultivator  or  with  a  special  home-made  tool 
similar  to  the  one  shown  in  Fig.  12.  This  tool  has  a  long  handle  with  a 
cross-piece  on  the  end  and  is  pushed  in  front  of  the  operator  like  a  lawn 
mower.  Spinach  is  often  gathered  with  forks  and  placed  in  large  crates, 
or  large  baskets  which  are  loaded  on  wagons,  or  it  may  be  loaded  in  bulk 
in  the  wagons.  Placing  the  spinach  in  baskets  or  crates  is  preferable  to 
loading  in  bulk,  since  by  the  latter  method  extra  handling  with  forks 
increases  the  injury. 

Some  trimming  is  usually  necessary  to  remove  all  of  the  dead  and 
discolored  leaves.  This  may  be  done  in  the  field  or  in  the  packing  shed. 
If  the  crop  is  grown  for  the  cannery  the  trimming  is  done  at  the  factory. 

It  is  best  not  to  cut  spinach  immediately  after  a  rain  or  a  heavy  dew 
because  the  leaves  are  crisp  and  brittle  and  break  easily  when  wet.  A 
slight  wilting  will  prevent  any  breaking  of  the  leaves. 


160  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

Preparation  for  Market. — Spinach  is  often  washed  to  remove  sand 
and  dirt  and  to  improve  its  appearance.  For  local  markets  there  is 
no  particular  objection  to  this,  but  for  long-distance  shipment  washing 
is  often  injurious.  The  plants  are  likely  to  be  bruised  and  the  leaves 
broken  to  some  extent  and  decay  is  thereby  increased.  Ridley  (123) 
found  that  washed  spinach  developed  a  greater  amount  of  decay  after 
holding  10  days  under  approximate  transit  conditions  than  unwashed 
spinach  held  under  the  same  conditions.  The  lots  which  were  washed 
developed  37.3  per  cent  soft  rot,  while  those  not  washed  developed  only 
7.7  per  cent  In  shipping  tests,  where  the  period  in  transit  was  from  3  to 
6  days,  the  soft  rot  found  in  washed  spinach  on  arrival  was  5.5  per  cent 
and  in  unwashed  spinach  0.0.  Three  days  later  the  washed  spinach 
showed  24.8  per  cent  decay  and  the  unwashed  5.7  per  cent. 

Spinach  is  packed  for  shipment  in  various  types  of  packages  including 
the  round  bushel  basket,  barrel,  hamper  and  crate.  For  long-distance 
shipping,  as  from  California,  Texas  and  Louisiana  crushed  ice  is  put  in 
the  package.  As  a  rule  the  amount  of  ice  used  is  from  two-thirds  to 
three-fourths  of  the  weight  of  the  spinach.  When  baskets  are  used  the 
common  practice  is  to  put  the  ice  in  the  center.  In  icing  barrels  the  ice 
is  usually  distributed  in  three  or  four  layers.  Ridley  (123)  has  shown 
that  when  part  of  the  ice  is  put  on  top  of  the  spinach  much  better  results 
are  secured  than  when  all  of  the  ice  is  placed  in  the  center  of  the  basket. 
In  one  car  shipped  from  Austin,  Texas  to  Chicago  temperatures  of  the 
spinach  were  taken  above  and  below  the  ice  at  frequent  intervals  during 
the  trip.  The  temperature  below  the  ice  averaged  about  35  degrees  F.  for 
three  and  a  half  days,  while  above  the  ice  the  temperature  at  the  begin- 
ning was  above  60  degrees  F.  and  gradually  dropped  to  about  42  degrees 
F.     The  average  difference  was  over  10  degrees  for  the  transit  period. 

NEW  ZEALAND  SPINACH 

New  Zealand  Spinach  {Tetragonia  expansa)  is  not  a  true  spinach  but 
belongs  to  a  different  family,  Aixoaceae.  The  leaves  resemble  spinach 
leaves  to  some  extent  and  the  product  is  used  in  the  same  way.  The 
plants  are  much  branched,  spreading  often  3  or  4  feet  across,  and  grows 
to  the  height  of  1  to  2  feet.  The  leaves  are  thick,  dark  green  and  some- 
what triangular  in  form.     The  seeds  are  enclosed  in  a  hard  rough  pod. 

New  Zealand  spinach  thrives  in  hot  weather  when  ordinarj^  spinach 
will  not  grow  satisfactorily.  It  is  not  seriously  injured  by  the  leaf 
miner  and  does  not  go  to  seed  quickly.  The  tips  of  the  branches  are 
harvested  for  food  and  since  these  do  not  come  in  contact  with  the  soil 
there  is  no  sand  or  soil  to  be  washed  off  and  no  waste  in  preparing  for 
the  table. 

Culture. — Seed  may  be  planted  in  a  gr(H'nhouse  or  hotbed  during  late 
winter.     The  plants  should  be  pricked  out  while  still  small,  preferably 


POTHERBS  OR  GREENS  161 

into  pots  so  that  they  can  be  set  out  later  without  disturbing  the  roots 
to  any  great  extent.  They  should  be  set  in  the  field  2  to  3  feet  apart  in  the 
row,  with  the  rows  3  to  4  feet  apart.  The  seed  may  be  sown  directly  to  the 
field  early  in  the  spring  and  after  the  plants  have  become  well  established 
they  should  be  thinned  to  stand  a  foot  to  2  feet  apart  in  rows  3  to  4  feet 
apart. 

The  general  culture  is  about  the  same  as  for  spinach. 

Harvesting. — The  tender  tips  of  the  branches  3  to  4  inches  long  are 
snipped  off.  Harvesting  begins  as  soon  as  the  plants  get  large  enough 
and  continues  until  they  are  ruined  by  frost.  The  main  portion  of  the 
harvest  period  is  during  the  summer  when  spinach  is  not  available. 

This  crop  is  not  grown  for  shipment  to  any  great  extent,  but  in  the 
vicinitj'  of  New  York  it  is  quite  important  as  a  market  garden  crop  and 
is  handled  in  very  much  the  same  way  as  spinach. 

ORACH 

Orach  or  mountain  spinach  {Atrij)lex  hortensis)  has  long  been  used 
as  a  kitchen  garden  vegetable  in  Europe,  but  is  rarely  grown  in  the 
United  States.  It  belongs  to  the  family  Chenopodiaceae.  The  plants 
grow  to  the  height  of  4  or  more  feet  and  have  many  lateral  branches. 
There  are  three  types  based  on  the  color  of  the  leaves.  The  white 
variety  has  pale  green  leaves.  The  green  variety  has  rounder  leaves  than 
the  white  variety  and  is  slightly  more  vigorous.  The  red  variety  has 
stems  and  foliage  of  dark  red  color.  The  color  disappears  when  the 
leaves  and  stems  are  cooked. 

The  seed  is  planted  in  the  open  early  in  the  spring  in  rows  18  to  24 
inches  apart  and  the  plants  thinned  to  stand  10  to  12  inches  in  the  row. 
The  plants  are  used  while  young  and  tender,  and  while  they  stand  hot 
weather  fairly  well,  they  soon  run  to  seed,  therefore,  for  a  continuous 
supply,  successive  plantings  should  be  made  at  intervals  of  two  weeks 
until  summer  weather  arrives. 

The  general  culture  of  orach  is  about  the  same  as  for  spinach  for  which 
it  is  a  substitute. 

CHARD 

Chard  or  Swiss  chard  {Beta  vulgaris  var  Cicla)  is  a  foliage  beet  which 
has  been  developed  for  its  large,  fleshy  leafstalks  and  broad,  crisp  leaf 
blades.  It  is  one  of  the  best  potherbs  for  summer  use  since  it  withstands 
hot  weather  better  than  most  crops  grown  for  use  as  greens.  The 
leaves  are  prepared  for  the  table  like  spinach,  while  the  leafstalks  and 
midribs  are  often  cooked  and  served  like  asparagus.  Chard  is  not  as 
rich  in  iron  as  spinach,  but  is  a  good  addition  to  the  list  of  potherbs  and 
deserves  more  general  planting,  especially  in  the  home  garden.  It  may 
be  canned  in  the  same  manner  as  spinach. 
11 


162  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

Culture. — Chard  is  easily  grown.  The  plants  may  be  started  in  the 
greenhouse  or  hotbed  and  transplanted  to  the  open  as  soon  as  the  danger 
of  hard  frosts  is  over,  or  the  seed  may  be  sown  in  the  garden  or  field 
where  the  plants  are  to  grow.  The  rows  should  be  about  18  inches  apart 
for  hand  cultivation,  and  24  to  30  inches  for  horse-drawn  cultivators. 
When  plants  are  set  out  they  should  be  spaced  10  to  12  inches  apart, 
and  when  seed  is  sown  in  the  garden  the  plants  are  at  first  thinned 
to  3  inches  and  later  when  they  begin  to  crowd  they  are  thinned  to 
8  to  12  inches  apart  in  the  row.  The  plants  removed  arc  usually  used 
as  greens. 

A  planting  made  in  the  spring  will  produce  greens  throughout  the 
season  until  hard  freezes  occur  and  with  a  little  protection  the  plants  will 
live  throughout  the  winter.  Any  good  garden  soil  is  satisfactory  for 
chard.  Unless  the  soil  is  quite  rich  and  well  supplied  with  humus  a 
medium  application  of  manure  is  desirable.  Where  manure  is  not  avail- 
able a  green-manure  crop  may  be  used  to  supply  humus.  In  addition 
to  manure  an  application  of  a  little  readily  available  nitrogen,  and  about 
500  pounds  of  acid  phosphate  to  the  acre  is  advised.  Where  no  manure 
is  used  about  1,000  pounds  of  a  high-grade  mixed  fertilizer  should  be 
applied  on  most  soils. 

Chard  is  grown  to  some  extent  as  a  forcing  crop  in  greenhouses. 

Varieties. — There  are  only  a  few  varieties  of  chard,  the  most  important 
one  being  Lucullus,  which  has  very  large  crumpled,  dark  green  leaves, 
with  greenish-white  leaf  stems.  Giant  Perpetual  has  broad  light  green 
leaves.  Lyon,  a  new  variety  selected  for  its  broad  stem  and  midrib, 
is  listed  by  some  seedsmen.  Large  Ribbed  White  has  broad,  white 
stalks  and  white  midrib.  The  varieties  are  not  very  distinct  and  it  is 
probable  that  many  of  the  names  are  synonyms,  but  Lucullus  repre- 
sents the  type  most  commonly  grown. 

Harvesting. — The  usual  method  of  harvesting  is  to  cut  off  the  outer 
leaves  an  inch  or  two  from  the  ground  while  they  are  still  tender,  using 
a  large,  sharp  knife.     Care  should  be  taken  to  avoid  injuring  the  bud. 

When  prepared  for  market  the  leaves  are  washed  if  they  are  dirty 
and  are  then  tied  in  bunches  of  a  pound  or  more.  Chard  is  grown  com- 
mercially mainly  as  a  market  garden  crop  for  local  markets. 

KALE 

Kale  (Brassica  oleracea  var  acephala)  is  one  of  the  important  potherbs 
grown  in  the  home  garden  and  in  commercial  plantings.  In  the  vicinity 
of  Norfolk,  Virginia,  it  is  grown  on  a  large  scale  during  the  winter  and 
early  spring  and  is  shipped  to  the  large  markets.  According  to  figures 
compiled  by  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture  the  average  area 
devoted  to  kale  in  the  Norfolk  section  during  1916,  1917  and  1918  was 
1,967  acres. 


POTHERBS  OR  GREENS  163 

Kale  is  hardy  to  cold  but  does  not  thrive  in  hot  weather,  hence  it  is 
seldom  grown  as  a  summer  crop. 

Kale  has  been  under  cultivation  for  a  very  long  time.  It  was  known 
to  the  ancient  Greeks.  Several  varieties  were  described  by  Cato  who 
lived  about  200  B.  C.  It  was  known  in  the  United  States  during  the 
seventeenth  century. 

Many  types  of  kales  are  known,  but  they  all  probably  belong  to  the 
same  species.  The  chief  characteristics  of  all  kales  are  that  the  plants 
do  not  form  heads  like  cabbage  nor  produce  edible  flowers  like  cauli- 
flower and  broccoli.  Some  kales  are  grown  as  ornamentals,  being 
variousl}^  curled  and  of  beautiful  colors. 

Soils  and  Fertilizers. — Kale  will  thrive  on  any  good  garden  soil, 
but  a  well-drained  sandy  loam  is  considered  best.  The  soil  should  be 
well  prepared  as  for  any  other  vegetable  crop. 

Kale  is  a  fairly  heavy  feeder  and  unless  the  soil  is  rich  it  should  be 
liberally  fertilized.  In  the  Norfolk,  Virginia  region  growers  apply  a 
ton  or  more  high-grade  fertilizer  per  acre,  and  in  some  instances  manure 
is  also  applied.  If  manure  is  not  used  some  green-manure  crop  is  turned 
under  to  maintain  the  humus  supply.  The  green-manure  crop  is  usually 
grown  after  an  early  crop  of  vegetables  has  been  removed,  since  kale  is  not 
planted  until  late  summer  or  fall.  Fertilizer  experiments  at  the  Virginia 
Truck  Experiment  Station  (Bull.  9)  have  shown  the  importance  of  phos- 
phorus on  the  sandy  loam  soil  used  for  kale  in  that  region.  Plats  treated 
with  large  amounts  of  nitrogen  alone,  potash  alone,  and  the  two  combined 
produced  no  crop  while  those  to  which  phosphorus  was  added  produced 
a  fair  yield  even  without  manure,  or  other  humus-forming  material. 
Adding  humus  either  in  the  form  of  crimson  clover,  or  manure  increased 
the  yield  with  all  combinations  of  fertilizers,  and  lime  added  to  the  clover 
and  manure  plats  increased  the  yield  over  similar  plats  without  lime. 
Crimson  clover  and  lime  in  combination  with  complete  fertilizers,  gave 
as  good  results  as  manure  and  hme  plus  the  same  complete  fertihzers. 
The  crimson  clover-lime  treatment  was  much  cheaper  than  the  manure- 
lime  combination.  In  general  the  experiments  indicate  that  production 
can  be  maintained  by  the  use  of  commercial  fertilizers,  lime  and  green 
manure  crops. 

On  a  good  sandy  loam  soil  1,000  to  1,500  pounds  of  a  4-8-4  or  5-10-5 
fertilizer  should  be  sufficient  even  without  manure,  provided  the  humus 
is  supplied  by  turning  under  green-manure  crops.  Where  manure  is 
used  an  application  of  150  to  200  pounds  of  nitrate  of  soda,  to  give  the 
crop  a  quick  .start,  and  500  to  750  pounds  of  acid  phosphate  should  be 
sufficient. 

Planting. — Kale  is  grown  as  a  fall,  winter  and  early  spring  crop  in 
the  South  and  the  seed  is  planted  in  late  summer  and  fall.  In  the  North 
the  crop  is  grown  either  in  the  fall  or  in  early  spring.     Seed  for  the  fall 


164  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

crop  is  planted  in  July  and  August  depending  upon  the  locality,  elevation, 
etc.     Spring  planting  should  be  done  as  early  as  the  soil  can  be  prepared. 

Seed  is  sown  with  a  seed  drill  and  the  rows  are  spaced  18  inches  apart 
for  hand  cultivation  and  24  to  30  inches  apart  for  horse  culture.  After 
the  plants  are  well  established  they  are  thinned  to  stand  about  6  inches 
apart.  When  grown  for  home  use  the  plants  removed  in  thinning  are 
usually  used  as  food. 

Cultivation  and  Care. — Clean  cultivation  is  given  kale  and  the 
general  care  is  about  the  same  as  for  spinach. 

Kale  is  attacked  by  the  same  insects  as  cabbage,  especially  by  the 
false  cabbage  aphis  {Aphis  pseudohrassicae  Davis),  the  true  cabbage 
aphis  {Aphis  brassicae  Linn),  the  cabbage  worm,  the  cabbage  looper, 
and  the  harlequin  cabbage  bug.  The  same  spray  treatments  suggested 
for  the  control  of  these  insects  on  cabbage  will  control  them  on  kale, 
but  for  successful  kale  spraying  a  specially  rigged  sprayer  should  be 
used.  The  nozzles  should  be  near  the  ground  and  arranged  in  such  a 
way  that  two  of  them  spray  the  same  row  so  that  the  material  strikes 
the  plants  from  the  sides.  According  to  Zimmerly  and  Smith  (191)  the 
cost  of  spraying  kale  with  a  power  machine,  covering  six  rows  at  a  time 
was  only  $2.07  per  acre  for  one  application  of  arsenate  of  lead.  With 
nicotine  sulphate  and  soap  the  cost  was  $3.46  per  acre  for  one  application. 
These  figures  are  for  spraying  kale  in  20-inch  rows.  The  cost  was  a  little 
less  where  the  rows  were  farther  apart. 

Varieties. — The  varieties  of  kale  grown  in  the  United  States  belong 
to  two  groups,  Scotch  and  Siberian.  The  foliage  of  the  former  is  grayish- 
green  in  color  and  very  curled  and  crumpled  while  that  of  the  Siberian 
is  of  a  bluish-green  color  and  curled  but  not  quite  as  much  as  the  Scotch. 
Both  dwarf  and  tall  forms  are  grown,  but  the  former  is  the  more  popular. 
The  most  common  varieties  are  Dwarf  Curled  Scotch  or  Norfolk,  Early 
Curled   Siberian,   Tall   Scotch   and  Dwarf  Green  Curled. 

Harvesting. — For  home  use  the  leaves  are  often  picked  from  the 
plant,  while  for  market  the  entire  plant  is  cut  off  near  the  ground  using 
a  large  knife.  The  discolored  and  injured  leaves  are  removed  and  the 
plants  packed  for  shipping  without  washing.  In  the  Norfolk,  Virginia 
region  kale  is  packed  in  barrels  for  shipping  to  the  northern  markets. 

MUSTARD 

White  mustard  {Brassica  alba)  is  grown  for  salad  and  greens  to 
some  extent,  but  has  been  replaced  largely  by  spinach  and  kale.  This 
plant  is  a  hardy  annual  of  the  Cruciferae  family.  Seed  is  sown  very 
early  in  the  spring  for  spring  use  and  in  the  fall  for  a  winter  crop.  The 
plants  go  to  seed  quickly  in  the  spring.  The  seed  is  sown  thickly  in 
drills  12  to  15  inches  apart  and  the  plants  thinned  as  they  crowd  in  the 
row.     The  White  London  is  one  of  the  well-known  varieties  of  this  species. 


POTHERBS  OR  GREENS  165 

Giant  Curled  and  Ostrich  Plume  are  varieties  of  Brassica  Japonica 
grown  to  some  extent  in  the  South.  Both  of  these  varieties  produce 
large  curled  leaves.  The  Ostrich  Plume  or  Giant  Ostrich  Plume  is  the 
most  important  variety  of  mustard  in  some  sections  of  the  South. 

Black  mustard  {Brassica  nigra)  is  grown  largely  for  its  seed,  which 
is  made  into  the  mustard  of  commerce.  This  type  is  grown  to  a  large 
extent  on  the  adobe  soils  in  Santa  Barbara  County,  CaUfornia. 

In  the  South  mustard  is  grown  to  a  considerable  extent  as  a  trap 
crop  for  the  harlequin  cabbage  bug.  Tt  is  planted  near  the  cabbage  or 
other  crop  to  be  protected  and  the  bugs  collect  on  the  mustard  plants. 
Plants  and  bugs  arc  killed  by  spraying  with  pure  kerosene  or  kerosene 
emulsion  early  in  the  morning  when  the  bugs  are  inactive. 

COLLARDS 

Collards  (Brassica  oleraceayar.  acephala)  in  habit  of  growth,  resemble 
kale  and  rape  rather  than  cabbage.  The  plant  does  not  form  a  head, 
but  is  grown  for  the  rosette  of  leaves  which  grow  at  the  top  of  the  stalk. 
It  often  attains  a  height  of  2  to  3  feet.  It  is  not  grown  in  the  North  since 
it  is  inferior  in  quality  to  cabbage  and  to  many  of  the  potherbs. 

Collards  will  withstand  much  more  heat  than  cabbage  and  are  there- 
fore used  as  a  substitute  for  it  during  the  summer.  The  plant  is  quite 
hardy  to  cold  and  will  withstand  the  winter  weather  in  most  parts  of  the 
South. 

The  crop  is  grown  mainly  for  use  as  greens  during  the  winter  and 
its  flavor  is  improved  by  a  touch  of  frost.  The  seeds  are  sown  in  beds 
in  the  spring  and  in  the  fall,  and  the  plants  are  transplanted  to  rows 
3  to  3>^  feet  apart  and  2  feet  apart  in  the  rows.  The  cultivation  and 
care  given  collards  arc  about  the  same  as  that  given  cabbage. 

DANDELION 

The  wild  dandelion  is  a  great  favorite  for  spring  greens.  It  is  cut 
from  meadows  and  lawns  for  this  purpose.  It  is  considered  a  noxious 
weed  in  lawns  and  in  meadows,  since  it  drives  out  grasses  and  other 
plants. 

The  dandelion  has  been  improved  in  size  and  vigor  by  culture  and 
is  grown  to  a  considerable  extent  as  a  potherb  in  Europe  and  in  a  small 
way  in  the  United  States.  Some  of  the  varieties  or  strains  resemble 
endive.  The  cultivated  dandelion  has  been  developed  from  the  wild 
species,  Taraxacum  officinalis,  a  member  of  the  Compositeae,  or  sunflower 
family. 

Dandelion  seed  is  usually  sown  in  the  place  where  the  crop  is  to 
mature,  although  the  plants  may  be  started  indoors  and  transplanted 
to  the  garden  in  the  spring.  The  plants  should  stand  10  to  12  inches 
apart  in  the  row  with  the  rows  15  to  18  inches  apart  for  hand  cultivation. 


166  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

A  sandy  or  light  loamy  soil  is  preferred.  The  crop  is  usually  harvested 
like  spinach.  The  plants  are  sometimes  blanched  by  tying  the  leaves 
together,  or  by  covering  to  exclude  the  light. 

DandeHon  plants  are  sometimes  forced  in  hotbeds  or  in  greenhouses 
for  winter  and  early  spring  markets. 


CHAPTER  XIX 

SALAD  CROPS 

Celery  Parsley 

Lettuce  Chervil 

Endive  Cress 

WiTLOOP  Chicory  Corn  Salad 

Salad  plants  in  general  thrive  best  during  the  cooler  parts  of  the 
growing  season,  and  to  be  of  the  highest  quality  growth  must  be  quick  and 
continuous.  In  the  North  these  crops  are  grown  mainly  in  spring  and 
early  summer  or  in  late  summer  and  fall,  or  at  both  seasons,  since  they 
do  not  thrive  well  during  the  hottest  part  of  the  growing  season.  In 
the  South  they  are  grown  during  the  winter  and  spring. 

Salad  plants  are  appreciated  now  more  than  ever  before  because  of 
the  extension  of  knowledge  of  their  value  in  the  diet.  They  furnish 
roughage  and  at  the  same  time  are  rich  in  some  of  the  essential  salts 
and  in  vitamins. 

CELERY 

Celery  is  one  of  the  most  popular  of  the  salad  crops  grown  in  the 
United  States,  being  exceeded  in  popularity  only  by  lettuce.  Until 
comparatively  recent  times  celery  was  considered  a  luxury,  but  now  it 
is  a  common  article  in  the  diet  and  is  available  practically  throughout 
the  year.  It  is  prized  for  its  crisp,  piquant  leaf  stalks  which  are  usually 
eaten  raw.  However  celery  is  also  used  as  a  cooked  vegetable  and  as 
flavoring  in  soups,  dressings,  etc. 

Statistics  of  Production. — The  commercial  production  of  celery  in  the 
United  States  has  increased  from  15,863  acres  valued  at  $3,922,848  in 
1909  to  20,148  acres  valued  at  $9,462,277  in  1919.  The  value  per  acre  in 
1919  was  $470,  which  was  nearly  double  that  of  the  crop  in  1909. 
This  increase  in  the  10-year  period  indicates  the  increase  in  demand.  In 
1919  over  three-fourths  of  the  acreage  of  celery  in  the  United  States  was 
produced  in  six  states.  California  was  in  the  lead  with  5,351  acres  and 
was  followed  by  Michigan  with  3,343  acres,  New  York,  3,288,  Pennsyl- 
vania, 1,379,  Ohio,  1,290  and  Florida  1,225  acres.  California  alone  pro- 
duced over  one-fourth  of  the  crop.  Celery  is  also  grown  to  quite  an 
extent  in  the  home  gardens,  especially  in  the  North,  and  this  is  not 
included  in  the  figures  given. 

167 


168  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

History  and  Taxonomy. — Celery  is  a  plant  of  marshy  places  and 
according  to  Stiirtevant,  its  habitat  extends  from  Sweden  southward  to 
Algeria,  Egypt,  Abyssinia,  and  in  Asia  even  to  the  Caucasus,  Baluchistan 
and  the  mountains  of  India.  It  has  been  found  growing  wild  in  Terra  del 
Fuego,  in  California  and  in  New  Zealand.  The  wild  plant  was  probably 
used  for  medicinal  purposes  hundreds  of  years  before  it  was  used  as  food. 
There  is  no  evidence  that  it  was  grown  by  the  Ancients  as  a  food  plant, 
but  if  it  was  planted  at  all  it  was  for  medicinal  purposes.  The  first 
mention  of  its  cultivation  as  a  food  plant  was  in  1623  in  France.  The 
first  cultivated  celery  differed  little  from  the  wild  plant. 

Celery  is  a  biennial  plant,  although  grown  as  an  annual  crop.  It 
belongs  to  the  family  Umbelliferae.  The  flowers  are  very  small,  white, 
in  compound  umbels,  among  the  leaves  of  the  flower  stalk. 

Climatic  Requirements. — Celery  thrives  best  when  the  weather  is 
relatively  cool,  especially  at  nights,  and  with  a  moderate,  well-distributed 
rainfall  of  8  to  12  inches  during  the  growing  season.  The  United  States 
is  naturally  divided  into  four  areas  with  reference  to  celery  production: 
(1)  The  northern  area,  within  which  celery  may  be  produced  during  the 
summer  months;  (2)  the  middle  area  within  which  the  weather  is  too  hot 
in  summer  and  too  cold  during  the  winter  for  the  successful  culture  of 
celery;  (3)  the  southern  area  within  which  celery  may  be  grown  during 
the  winter,  and  (4)  California,  where  celery  can  be  grown  successfully 
in  the  fall  and  winter  months.  All  of  the  areas  are  influenced  by  elevation 
and  rainfall.  In  the  middle  area  celery  can  be  grown  successfully  at  high 
altitudes  as  in  the  mountainous  regions  of  Maryland,  Virginia  and 
West  Virginia. 

Soil  Preferences. — The  best  soil  for  celery  is  a  good  type  of  well- 
drained  muck  and  a  large  part  of  the  crop  produced  in  New  York,  Ohio, 
Michigan  and  California  is  grown  on  this  type.  Some  of  the  crop  pro- 
duced in  Pennsylvania,  Florida  and  New  Jersey  is  also  grown  on  muck. 
Any  good  loamy  soil  will  produce  a  satisfactory  crop  of  celery  if  the 
weather  and  moisture  conditions  are  suitable.  A  sandy  soil,  well  supplied 
with  humus  is  preferred  to  any  other  type  of  mineral  soil,  although  celery 
can  be  grown  on  any  rich  well-drained  soil.  A  heavy  clay  should  be 
avoided  if  a  lighter  type  of  soil  is  available. 

Some  authorities  believe  that  celery  grown  on  muck  soil  is  inferior 
in  quality  and  has  poorer  keeping  properties  than  that  produced  on 
mineral  soils.  There  is  no  evidence  available  on  which  to  base  a  com- 
parison of  keeping  qualities  of  celery  grown  on  different  kinds  of  soil. 
Since  most  of  the  celery  put  in  cold  storage  is  grown  on  muck  soil  one 
would  assume  that  such  celery  keeps  fairly  well.  In  the  matter  of  quality 
the  comparison  is  based  on  different  varieties  in  most  instances.  Com- 
paring the  same  variety  grown  on  muck  and  on  mineral  soil  at  the  same 
time  and  in  the  same  locality  the  advantage,  the  author  believes,  is  in 


SALAD  CROPS  169 

favor  of  the  muck  soil.  To  be  of  the  best  qiiaUty  celery  must  have  a 
continuous  growth  and  this  is  more  likely  to  take  place  on  muck  than  on 
mineral  soils  clue  to  the  better  physical  condition  and  greater  water- 
holding  power  of  the  former. 

Preparation  of  the  Soil. — Soil  for  celery  should  be  given  the  very  best 
of  preparation  in  the  way  of  deep  plowing  and  thorough  pulverizing. 
The  soil  should  be  deeply  plowed  in  order  to  hold  as  much  moisture  as 
possible  in  the  surface,  since  celery  is  not  a  deep  rooted  plant  and  is  easily 
injured  by  drought. 

In  the  North  plowing  in  the  fall  is  advisable  for  the  early  crop. 
Even  for  the  late  crop  fall  plowing  is  desirable.  Fall-plowed  land 
should  be  harrowed  at  frequent  intervals  during  the  spring  until  the 
crop  is  planted,  in  order  to  keep  down  weeds  and  to  conserve  soil  moisture. 
In  the  South  the  land  should  be  plowed  long  enough  in  advance  of 
planting  to  allow  ample  time  to  pulverize  the  soil  thoroughly.  The 
time  of  plowing  is  determined  to  some  extent  by  the  previous  use  made 
of  the  land.  If  a  cover  crop  is  grown  just  ahead  of  the  celery  the  land 
should  be  plowed  long  enough  in  advance  to  allow  the  material  turned 
under  to  become  partially  decayed  at  least. 

In  preparation  for  planting  the  surface  soil  should  be  well  pulverized 
by  harrowing,  disking  and  rolling  or  by  whatever  methods  are  necessary 
to  make  the  surface  fine.  Just  before  planting  the  land  should  be  rolled 
or  dragged  in  order  to  secure  an  even  surface  for  planting.  The  use  of 
the  roller  or  heavy  drag  is  especially  important  on  very  loose  muck 
soils,  since  packing  is  an  advantage  on  such  soils. 

Manures  and  Fertilizers. — Celery  is  a  heavy  feeder  and  a  rather  poor 
forager,  therefore,  large  quantities  of  fertilizers  are  usually  applied. 
When  mineral  soils  are  used  for  growing  this  crop,  manure  is  usually  used 
in  large  quantities,  especially  in  the  North.  In  Florida  dependence  is 
placed  on  commercial  fertilizer  and  soil-improving  crops.  Where  manure 
is  used  it  is  advisable  to  apply  some  commercial  fertilizer,  especially  some 
readily  available  nitrogen,  such  as  nitrate  of  soda  and  also  some  phos- 
phorus carrier  as  acid  phosphate.  Nitrate  of  soda  400  pounds  and  acid 
phosphate  400  to  800  pounds  to  the  acre  in  addition  to  20  to  30  tons  of 
manure  to  the  acre  should  be  sufficient  for  the  celery  crop  on  mineral 
soils.  Where  manure  is  not  used  a  ton  of  5-10-5  fertilizer  or  some  similar 
mixture  should  give  good  results  if  the  humus  supply  is  kept  up.  It  is 
doubtful  if  more  than  a  ton  of  5-10-5  fertilizer  could  be  utilized  by  a  crop 
of  celery.  If  a  good  crop  is  not  produced  with  a  ton  of  high-grade  fertil- 
izer per  acre  attention  should  be  given  to  the  physical  condition  of  the 
soil  and  to  other  factors  affecting  growth  of  the  crop. 

On  muck  soils  celery  is  fertilized  almost  entirely  with  commercial 
fertilizers  since  humus  is  abundant  in  these  soils.  In  many  sections 
growers  use  about  one  ton  of  a  4-8-10  fertilizer  and  this  amount  is  prob- 


170 


VEGETABLE  CROPS 


ably  the  maximum  that  may  be  applied  with  profit.  Since  muck  soils  are 
deficient  in  potash  a  large  amount  of  this  element  is  considered  necessary. 
Results  of  experiments  conducted  at  North  Liberty,  Indiana  by  the 
U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture  in  cooperation  with  the  Indiana  Experi- 
ment Station  indicate  that  all  of  the  important  fertilizing  elements  are 
of  importance  on  this  type  of  muck  soil  (10).  The  results  for  two  years 
only  are  available,  but  since  they  are  similar  to  those  secured  in  other 
experiments  they  are  given  as  indicating  what  might  be  expected.  The 
soil  on  which  these  experiments  were  conducted  is  typical  of  the  region 
and  is  similar  to  soils  of  other  large  areas  in  Northern  Indiana  and  South- 
ern Michigan.  Table  XIX  gives  the  yields  of  celery  under  various  treat- 
ments. 

Tabi.k  XIX. — Summary  of  Results  of  Fertilizer  Experiments  on  Celery  at 
North  Liberty,  Indiana — Crops  of  1915  and  1916 


Kind  of  fertilizer 


Amount,  lb. 
per  acre 


Yields  per 
acre,  lb. 


Acid  phosphate,  14  per  cent 

Mur  ate  of  potash 

Muriate  of  potash 

Sulphate  of  potash 

Nitrate  of  soda , 

Tankage 

Check  (no  fertilizer) 

Manure 

Limestone 

Muriate  of  potash 

Acid  phosphate,  14  per  cent 

Muriate  of  potash 

Acid  phosphate,  14  per  cent, 

Nitrate  of  soda 

Tankage 

Muriate  of  potash 

Muriate  of  potash 

Manure 

Manure 

Limestone 


457 
200 
400 
200 
200' 
200. 


30,000 
2,000 
200 
457, 
400- 
457. 
200 
200 
400. 
200' 

30,000. 

30,000^ 
2,000. 


14,430 
19,881 
24,704 

17,882 

19,161 

11,992 
22,785 
13,645 

24,186 
27,562 


20,441 

26,870 
24,028 


The  figures  in  the  above  table  show  that  potash  gave  a  greater  increase 
in  yield  than  any  other  single  element.  Four  hundred  pounds  of  muriate 
of  potash  produced  a  little  more  than  twice  as  much  celery  as  the  check 
plat  and  nearly  as  much  as  any  combination.  The  only  combinations 
outyielding  the  400  pounds  of.  muriate  of  potash  were  the  acid  phosphate- 
muriate  of  potash  plat  and  the  manure-muriate  of  potash  plat.  It  will 
be  noticed  that  all  of  these  plats  had  the  same  muriate  of  potash  treat- 


SALAD  CROPS  171 

ment.  Acid  phosphate  alone  and  in  combination  with  potash  increased 
the  yield.  Nitrate  of  soda  and  tankage  increased  the  yield  considerably 
over  the  check  plat  but  in  combination  with  potash  there  is  an  apparent 
loss  as  compared  to  400  povmds  of  muriate  alone.  This  is  not  explained. 
Limestone  gave  only  a  slight  increase  over  the  check. 

In  other  experiments  conducted  by  the  author,  the  results  of  which 
liave  not  been  published,  500  pounds  of  16-per  cent  acid  phosphate  in  com- 
bination with  nitrogen  and  potash  produced  as  large  yield  as  1,000  pounds 
of  acid  phosphate.  In  view  of  this  it  would  seem  that  a  ton  of  4-8-10 
fertilizer  contains  more  phosphorus  than  is  necessary.  With  this  excep- 
tion the  common  practice  of  using  a  ton  of  this  mixture  to  the  acre  on 
celery  would  seem  to  be  justified  on  the  basis  of  experimental  results. 
More  than  a  ton  has  not  been  found  to  be  justified. 

Results  of  experiments  with  manure,  fertilizers  and  green-manure 
crops  on  celery  grown  on  a  Miami  silt  loam  soil  at  the  Rhode  Island 
Experiment  Station  are  given  in  Chapter  III.  A  larger  yield  of  celery 
was  produced  by  16  tons  of  manure  supplemented  with  chemicals  than 
with  32  tons  of  manure  alone.  Where  extra  nitrogen  was  added  to  the 
regular  fertilizer  application  the  yield  was  still  further  increased.  Extra 
potassium  also  considerably  increased  the  yield  while  extra  phosphorus 
gave  a  very  slight  increase. 

Sowing  Seed. — Celery  seed  is  never  planted  where  the  crop  is  to  grow 
to  maturity,  because  of  the  care  necessary  to  get  a  stand  of  good  plants. 
The  seeds  are  small  and  germinate  very  slowly  and  the  plants  are 
quite  delicate  when  small  so  that  special  attention  is  necessary  to  get 
them  started. 

The  time  of  sowing  seed  is  determined  largely  by  the  time  the  crop  is 
desired  for  use.  Seed  for  the  very  early  crop  in  the  North  is  usually 
sown  in  January  or  February  although  some  growers  sow  as  late  as  March 
1st.  It  is  not  desirable  to  sow  seed  any  earher  than  is  necessary  to  get 
plants  large  enough  for  planting  at  the  proper  time  since  early  sowing 
is  probably  the  main  cause  of  very  early  development  of  the  seed  stalks. 
Seed  for  the  main  or  late  crop  of  celery  in  the  North  is  usually  sown  in 
outdoor  beds  late  in  April  or  in  May.  In  the  South  celery  is  grown 
mainly  as  a  winter  and  early  spring  crop  and  the  seed  is  planted  in  late 
summer  and  at  intervals  during  the  fall.  For  the  early  winter  crop  the 
main  problem  in  plant  growing  is  to  get  the  plants  started  during  the 
hot  weather  of  late  summer  and  early  fall.  Partial  shading  of  the  seed 
bed  is  practiced  in  some  localities. 

Soaking  the  seed,  prior  to  planting,  hastens  germination  and  is  prac- 
ticed by  growers  in  many  sections,  especially  for  the  late  crop  of  celery. 
A  common  method  is  to  moisten  the  seed  in  a  pan  or  other  receptacle 
and  put  it  in  a  warm  place  where  it  is  kept  for  several  days  or  until  the 
sprouts  begin  to  appear.     Another  method  followed  by  some  growers  is 


172  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

to  place  the  seed  between  folds  of  cloth.  The  cloths  are  kept  moist, 
('are  must  be  taken  to  prevent  the  seeds  from  drying  out  as  this  would 
injure  their  vitality.  As  soon  as  the  sprouts  appear  the  seeds  should 
be  planted  because  if  the  sprouts  are  allowed  to  grow  too  long  there 
is  danger  of  breaking  them  in  planting.  When  ready  for  planting  the  seed 
is  spread  out  in  an  airy  place  to  dry,  but  complete  drying  should  not  be 
allowed.  Many  growers  mix  the  seed  with  ashes,  dust,  corn  meal  or  other 
substances  to  take  up  the  moisture  and  to  aid  in  distributing  the  seed. 

Celery  seed  may  be  sown  in  rows  or  broadcast  and  both  methods  are 
used.  Broadcasting  gives  a  better  distribution  of  plants  but  sowing 
in  rows  gives  an  advantage  in  watering,  thinning  and  weeding.  When 
plants  are  started  in  the  greenhouse  or  hotbed  the  seed  is  sown  broadcast, 
or  in  rows  about  two  inches  apart  and  covered  with  pieces  of  burlap  or 
with  about  one-eighth  of  an  inch  of  soil.  Sometimes  the  burlap  covering 
is  used  even  when  the  seed  is  covered  with  soil.  The  burlap  prevents 
washing  the  seed  into  piles  when  watering  and  also  prevents  rapid  drying 
of  the  surface  of  the  soil.  As  soon  as  the  seedlings  appear  the  covering 
should  be  removed  to  prevent  injury  to  the  plants.  When  the  seed  is 
sown  in  outdoor  beds  broadcasting  is  sometimes  practiced  and  the  beds 
are  covered  with  burlap.  Sowing  in  rows  12  to  18  inches  apart,  using  a 
seed  drill  for  the  purpose  is  popular  in  some  sections.  By  this  method 
the  plants  can  be  kept  well  cultivated  with  hand  cultivators.  Thinning 
can  be  more  easily  done  when  the  plants  are  grown  in  rows. 

When  the  plants  are  grown  in  the  greenhouse,  and  are  transplanted 
prior  to  setting  in  the  field,  ^^  pound  of  seed  is  sufficient  for  one  acre 
planted  in  single  rows  3  feet  apart.  When  the  seed  is  sown  in  outdoor 
beds,  and  the  plants  are  taken  direct  from  the  seedbed  to  the  field  it  is 
advisable  to  sow  ji  pound  for  each  acre  to  be  planted. 

Care  of  Plants. — Verj'^  close  attention  to  watering  is  necessary  licfore 
the  seeds  germinate  and  while  the  plants  are  small,  especially  when  grown 
in  the  greenhouse  or  hotbed.  The  surface  of  the  soil  should  never  be 
allowed  to  dry  out  until  the  plants  become  well  established,  but  keeping 
the  soil  soaked  should  be  avoided.  When  this  method  of  planting  is 
used  the  weeds  should  be  kept  under  control  and  the  soil  kept  stirred 
between  the  rows. 

Plants  for  the  very  early  crop  are  often  transplanted  before  time 
for  setting  in  the  field.  This  is  usually  done  4  to  G  weeks  after  the 
seed  is  sown.  They  may  be  set  into  flats,  or  into  the  soil  of  the  hotbed 
or  greenhouse,  spacing  the  plants  1}^  by  1}^^,  or  2  by  2  inches.  This 
transplanting  is  usually  done  as  soon  as  the  plants  reach  sufficient  size, 
VA  to  2  inches  tall.     (See  Chapter  VIII.) 

For  a  large  portion  of  the  acreage  planted  the  plants  arc  taken 
direct  from  the  seed  bed  to  the  field,  since  transplanting  is  very  expensive 
and  is  of  little  advantage  except  for  the  very  early  crop. 


SALAD  CROPS 


173 


Setting  the  Plants. — -Before  taking  up  the  plants  for  setting  in  the 
field  the  plant  bed  should  be  watered,  preferabl^y  a  few  hours  in  advance 
of  lifting  the  plants.  This  is  especially  desirable  with  plants  that  have 
been  transplanted,  as  the  watering  will  make  the  soil  adhere  to  the  roots. 
It  is  desirable  to  set  the  plants  when  the  soil  is  moist  and  the  air  rather 
humid,  as  there  is  less  wilting  of  the  foHage  under  these  conditions  than 
when  the  soil  and  air  are  dry.  When  it  is  necessary  to  plant  in  a  dry  soil 
it  is  desirable  to  water  the  plants  after  they  are  set,  or  to  moisten  the  soil 
along  the  row  before  setting  them.  A  common  practice  on  muck,  when 
the  soil  is  dry,  is  to  pour  a  stream  of  water,  from  a  watering  can,  along  the 
row  where  the  plants  arc  to  be  set.  After  the  water  has  soaked  into 
the  soil  the  plants  are  set,  and,  under  most  conditions,  there  is  little  loss  of 
plants.  On  mineral  soils  the  more  common  practice  is  to  apply  the 
water  after  setting  the  plants. 

Celery  plants  are  set  4  to  6  inches  apart  in  the  row,  with  the  rows 
12  to  18  inches  apart  in  close  culture,  and  3  to  5  feet  in  the  ordinary 
method,  followed  by  most  growers.  Plants  are  sometimes  set  in  double 
rows  6  inches  apart  each  way  with  the  sets  of  rows  3  to  5  feet  apart. 
This  practice  is  not  as  common  as  it  was  formerly.  The  main  objection 
to  it  is  that  it  is  difficult  to  cultivate  between  rows  6  inches  apart  and 
the  work  must  be  done  by  hand.  On  muck  soil  3,  3}^  and  4  feet  between 
the  rows  are  the  most  common  distances.  For  blanching  with  boards 
3  feet  apart  is  sufficient  but  where  soil  is  used  for  blanching  the  distance 
should  be  greater.  The  approximate  number  of  plants  required  to  plant 
an  acre  at  various  distances  is  given  in  the  following  table. 


Table  XX. — Number  of 

Plants  Required  to  Plant  an  Acre  at  Varying 

Distances 

Distance  between  rows, 
in.  or  ft. 

Distance  between  plants, 
in. 

Number  of  plants 

18 

4 

87,000 

2 

4 

65,240 

3 

4 

43,560 

4 

4 

32,670 

5 

4 

26,160 

3 

5 

34,848 

3 

6 

29,000 

4 

5 

26,240 

4 

6 

21,780 

Celery  plants  are  set  by  hand  since  machine  planters  are  not  adapted 
to  such  close  planting.  In  addition  to  this,  celer}'-  plants  must  be  set  at  a 
certain  depth  and  this  would  be  very  difficult  with  a  machine.     The 


174  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

plants  must  be  set  deep  enough  to  prevent  drying  of  the  roots,  but 
not  so  deep  as  to  cover  the  heart  or  growing  point.  Setting  plants 
in  a  trench  is  not  desirable  on  account  of  the  danger  of  the  growing 
point  being  covered  with  soil  in  cultivation.  Transplanted  plants  of 
good  size  may  be  planted  in  a  shallow  furrow  opened  with  a  small  hand 
plow.  Non-transplanted  plants  are  usually  planted  in  an  opening 
made  with  the  forefinger,  or  with  a  dibble. 

In  planting  celery  it  is  very  important  to  have  straight  rows  equal 
distance  apart  for  convenience  in  spraying  and  blanching.  The  use  of  a 
line,  or  a  marker  is  advisable.  A  common  practice  on  muck  soil  is  to  set 
a  line  at  the  proper  place  and  press  it  into  the  soil  with  the  back  of  a 
shovel.  Another  method  is  to  use  a  sled  marker  with  a  small  strip  of  iron 
on  the  runners.  This  is  especially  good  when  the  soil  is  dry  as  the 
runners  push  the  dry  soil  aside  and  the  small  strip  of  iron  usually  makes 
a  groove  into  which  the  plants  are  set.  This  small  groove  is  especially 
desirable  when  the  soil  must  be  moistened  before  or  after  setting  the 
plants,  since  only  a  small  amount  of  water  is  necessary  to  moisten  the  soil 
in  the  groove. 

Cultivation. — Good,  clean  cultivation  throughout  the  growing  season 
is  important  for  the  celery  crop  since  weeds  are  very  troublesome 
on  most  celery  soils.  Cultivation  of  celery  is  very  important  also  from 
the  standpoint  of  maintaining  a  soil  mulch,  since  the  roots  do  not  have 
much  spread.  (See  Chaper  X.)  Cultivation  should  begin  as  soon  as 
the  plants  are  set  as  there  is  considerable  packing  of  the  soil  in  planting. 
While  the  plants  are  small,  hand  cultivators  are  used  near  the  row  since 
a  horse  cultivator  if  run  close  would  throw  soil  over  the  plants.  The 
middles  of  the  rows  are  cultivated  with  horse  cultivators  when  the  rows 
are  far  enough  apart.  Under  "close  culture,"  hand  cultivation  only  is 
given. 

When  weeds  are  troublesome  the  knife  attachments  arc  usually  used 
on  the  hand  cultivators  although  small  disks  are  often  used  when  the 
plants  are  small.  When  the  disks  are  used  the  row  is  straddled  with  a 
two-wheel  cultivator,  one  set  of  disks  running  on  each  side  of  the  row. 
These  disks  throw  the  soil  away  from  the  plants  and  leave  them  on  a 
little  ridge,  which  is  leveled  down  in  hand  weeding.  The  disks  are  usu- 
ally employed  only  in  preparation  for  hand  weeding. 

In  all  cultivation  the  surface  soil  should  be  left  as  level  as  posible, 
therefore  it  is  desirable  to  use  small-toothed  cultivators.  Shallow 
cultivation  is  desirable  at  all  times  especially  near  the  plants  as  many  of 
the  roots  grow  very  near  the  surface  and  within  6  to  12  inches  of  the  row. 

Blanching. — The  blanching  of  celery  results  in  the  loss  of  the  green 
coloring  matter  and  the  strong  flavor,  and  makes  the  leaf  stalks  crisp 
and  tender.  Blanching  is  accomplished  by  excluding  the  light  from  the 
leaf  stalks  while  the  plants  are  still  growing. 


SALAD  CROPS 


175 


Several  methods  of  blanching  are  employed  including  the  use  of 
boards,  paper  and  soil.  Boards  and  paper  are  used  almost  exclusively 
for  blanching  early  celerj',  since  it  is  not  safe  to  use  soil  during  hot  weather. 
Celery  banked  with  soil  is  likely  to  rot  when  the  weather  is  hot.  The 
late  fall  crop  is  commonly  blanched  by  banking  with  soil,  since  this  is  the 
cheapest  method  and  the  soil  is  a  better  protection  against  cold  than  either 
boards  or  paper. 

Boards  used  for  blanching  celery  are  usually  1  inch  thick,  10  to  12 
inches  wide  and  14  to  16  feet  long.  A  good  grade  of  hemlock  is  considered 
quite  satisfactory  although  other  kinds  of  woods  are  used.  A  light- 
weight durable  wood  is  desired.     In  placing  the  boards  they  are  first 


«MPb'%  "'"i-i  r^'  ■  ^-^^--^^ 

||f3Sfei^p^,";*'; 

-•-•■-.^-•■.  ;  ■•. ,  \.  ■    .^/../■■-^*^:- 

Fig.  1.3. — A  field  of  celery  on  mueh  soil  showing  use  of  boards  in  blanching.  In  fore- 
ground a  type  of  celery  hiller  used  in  banking  celery  with  soil.  (Courtesy  of  U .  S.  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture). 

laid  flat  along  both  sides  of  the  row,  then  two  men,  working  together,  at 
opposite  ends  of  the  board  take  hold  of  the  edge  nearest  the  plants  and 
raise  it  so  that  it  catches  up  the  leaves.  When  the  board  is  in  a  vertical 
position  it  is  held  by  one  hand  while  with  the  other  the  board  on  the 
opposite  side  of  the  row  is  raised.  The  boards  are  held  in  place  by  wires 
bent  in  the  form  of  double  hooks  6  to  8  inches  long.  These  wires  are 
placed  over  the  upper  edges  of  the  boards  at  the  ends  and  sometimes  at 
one  or  two  places  in  between.  Short  pieces  of  laths  are  sometimes  tacked 
across  the  tops  to  hold  the  boards  in  place.  After  the  boards  are  in  place, 
a  little  soil  is  thrown  along  the  lower  edge  to  close  any  openings  that  may 
be  present  due  to  uneveness  of  the  soil.  Fig.  13. 

Two  types  of  paper  are  used  for  blanching  celery,  ordinary  building 
paper  and  a  paper  similar  to  heavy  roofing  paper  but  without  the  objec- 
tionable smell  of  tar.     The  latter  type  is  much  more  durable  than  the 


176  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

former  and  if  given  the  proper  care  will  last  for  several  years.  The 
advantage  of  the  paper  over  boards  lies  in  the  fact  that  it  is  much  lighter 
in  weight  and  therefore  does  not  require  so  much  labor  to  apply.  It  is 
more  expensive  than  boards,  but  when  labor  of  applying  is  taken  into 
consideration  the  expense  is  probably  as  low  as  that  for  boards. 

The  paper  is  usually  cut  into  strips  10  to  12  inches  wide  and  is 
bought  in  rolls  of  100  linear  feet.  In  applying  the  paper  to  the  celery 
two  rolls  are  used  at  a  time,  one  on  each  side  of  the  row.  It  is  unrolled 
and  set  on  edge  against  the  celery  plants  and  is  held  in  place  by  wires 
bent  in  the  shape  of  an  inverted  U,  with  each  leg  about  18  inches  long. 
The  wires  are  placed  over  the  row  with  one  leg  on  each  side  and  the 
ends  are  pushed  into  the  soil  to  the  depth  of  6  or  8  inches. 

Banking  with  soil  is  the  most  economical  method.  The  soil  is  worked 
up  to  the  plants  gradually  in  order  to  avoid  getting  it  into  the  center  of  the 
plant.  The  banking  is  usually  done  by  means  of  a  celery  hiller,  Fig.  13, 
which  pushes  the  soil  against  the  plants.  The  wings  of  the  hiller  arc 
adjustable  so  that  the  soil  can  be  pushed  to  any  desired  height.  As 
cold  weather  approaches  the  soil  is  usually  worked  up  to  the  tops  of  the 
plants. 

The  length  of  time  required  for  blanching  depends  upon  the  variety 
and  the  growing  conditions.  The  so-called  self-blanching  varieties,  such 
as  Golden  Self-blanching  and  Easy  Blanching,  blanch  in  much  less  time 
than  the  green  varieties  such  as  Giant  Pascal,  Winter  Queen,  Emperor,  etc. 

When  celery  is  growing  rapidly  it  will  blanch  in  less  time  than  when 
growth  is  slow.  In  summer  10  days  to  2  or  3  weeks  are  usually  required 
for  blanching  while  in  the  fall  a  longer  time  is  required,  unless  the  crop 
is  to  be  stored,  in  which  case  it  is  not  completely  blanched  when  harvested. 
Green  varieties  require  several  weeks  to  blanch  properly  but  since 
these  are  usually  grown  for  late  fall  and  winter  use  part  of  the  blanching 
is  accomplished  in  storage.  As  soon  as  the  crop  is  properly  blanched  it 
should  be  harvested,  because  if  left  too  long  it  loses  flavor. 

Varieties.^ — Distinct  varieties  are  not  as  numerous  nor  as  clearly 
separable  from  each  other  as  is  the  case  with  most  vegetables.  Cata- 
logues from  sixty  leading  seedsmen  of  the  United  States  list  only  65 
varietal  names  and  it  is  practically  certain  that  there  are  not  over  20 
American  varieties  that  are  distinct  enough  to  justify  separate  naming. 
Five  varieties  would  include  90  per  cent  of  the  commercially  grown  crop. 
The  most  important  varieties  are  Golden  Self-blanching,  Easy  Blanching, 
White  Plume,  Giant  Pascal,  Winter  Queen,  Boston  Market,  Emperor, 
French's  Success  and  Winter  King. 

Golden  Self-blanching  is  the  most  important  of  all  celery  varieties, 
representing  well  over  one-half  of  the  total  crop.     It  is  understood  that 

•  The  description  of  varieties  of  celery  was  furnished  by  Prof.  Paul  Work  of  the 
Vegetable  Gardening  Department  of  Cornell  University. 


SALAD  CROPS  177 

this  originated  as  a  sport  in  a  green  winter  variety  and  it  has  never  been 
wholly  cleared  of  dark  green  "rogues."  The  plant  is  of  medium  height, 
erect,  compact  in  growth,  medium  early.  The  foilage  is  vigorous,  but  is 
of  a  yellowish-green  color  rather  than  dark  green.  The  leaf  stalk  is  thin, 
sharp  edged  and  deeply  ribbed.  The  heart  is  large,  grows  up  vigorously 
after  blanching  has  begun  and  it  blanches  to  a  beautiful  light  golden- 
yellow  color.  Its  fine  appearance  makes  it  an  excellent  market  variety 
in  spite  of  its  rather  inferior  quality. 

Easy  Blanching  is  a  relatively  new  variety.  It  is  not  unUke  Golden 
Self-blanching,  but  is  somewhat  shorter,  less  erect,  more  vigorous  and  has 
darker  foilage,  large  heart  and  is  a  better  keeper.  It  blanches  a  little 
more  slowly  than  Golden  Self-blanching.  It  probably  originated  near 
New  York  City  as  a  sport  from  Golden  Self-blanching. 

White  Plume  is  a  French  sort  widely  offered  by  seedsmen,  but  very 
little  grown  as  a  commercial  crop.  It  is  very  earl}'-,  small,  spreading  in 
habit  of  growth.  The  foliage  is  a  rather  pale  green.  White  mottling 
of  the  leaves,  especially  towards  the  center  serves  to  distinguish  it  from 
any  other  variety.  The  leaf  stalk  is  slender,  thin  and  distinctly  though 
finely,  ribbed.  It  blanches  very. white,  but  is  tough  and  stringy  and  of 
inferior  quality. 

Giant  Pascal  is  the  leading  late,  winter  or  "green"  variety.  It  is 
medium  in  height,  strains  varying  widely  in  this  respect.  It  is  erect  and 
compact  in  growth.  Foliage  is  vigorous  and  of  a  dark  green  color.  The 
leaf  stalk  is  thick,  round-edged  and  has  very  shallow,  broad  ribs,  and  in 
many  cases  it  is  nearly  smooth.  This  variety  is  late  and  blanches  slowly 
to  a  beautiful  creamy-white  color.  The  quality  is  excellent,  even  to  the 
outside  leaf  stalks  of  well-blanched  plants.  The  heart  is  rather  small 
compared  to  the  size  of  the  whole  plant. 

Winter  Queen  is  a  late,  green  celery  of  little  commercial  importance. 
The  plant  is  tall,  erect  in  habit  of  growth.  The  leaf  stalks  are  slender, 
thin  and  distinctly  ribbed.  The  heart  is  not  heavy  and  the  plant  is  too 
tall  to  be  blanched  readily. 

Emperor  is  a  distinct  variety  of  a  somewhat  spreading  haljit  with  a 
fairly  heavy  heart  but  does  not  consist  of  enough  stalks  to  make  a  good 
market  variety.  It  is  too  brittle  to  stand  rough  handling.  The  quality 
is  excellent  both  as  to  flavor  and  texture.  The  leaf  stalks  are  very  short, 
thick,  smooth-ribbed  and  round.     Blanches  nearly  white. 

Columbia  represents  a  type  intermediate  between  Emperor  and 
Giant  Pascal. 

French's  Success  and  the  various  other  Golden  Hearts  are  winter 
varieties  marked  by  rather  short,  thin  leaf  stalks,  distinct  ribbing  and  a 
heavy  heart.  They  blanch  to  a  light  golden-yellow.  French's  Success 
is  an  excellent  storage  variety  as  it  is  a  good  late  keeper,  but  lacks 
quality. 


178  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

Premature  Development  of  Seed  Stalk. — Celery  growers  and  other 
authorities  attribute  premature  development  of  the  seed  stalk  to  various 
factors  including  early  sowing  of  the  seed,  exposure  to  cold,  crowding  of 
plants  prior  to  setting  in  the  field,  growing  plants  in  rich  soil,  growing 
plants  in  poor  soil,  check  in  growth  due  to  drying,  poor  seed,  and  any 
other  factor  which  checks  growth. 

Results  reported  by  Whipple  (177)  seem  to  indicate  that  early  sowing 
of  seed,  use  of  rich  soil  and  exposing  plants  to  low  temperatures  (not 
freezing)  for  a  considerable  period  in  the  cold  frame  favor  the  premature 
development  of  the  seed  stalk.  In  1913  celery  started  in  the  greenhouse 
February  14  produced  30  per  cent  seed  stalks,  while  the  same  varieties 
started  March  13  produced  a  fraction  over  1  per  cent.  In  1914  seed 
sown  February  2  and  set  in  the  field  June  17  produced  64  per  cent  seed 
stalks  while  those  started  March  2  and  set  in  the  field  on  June  17  pro- 
duced only  15  per  cent.  Plants  from  seed  sown  February  1,  1915 
produced  70  per  cent  seed  stalks  when  moved  to  the  cold  frame  early, 
while  those  from  March  1  sowing  produced  58  per  cent  seed  stalks  under 
the  same  conditions. 

Celery  plants  grown  in  extra  rich  soil  in  1913  produced  38  per  cent 
seed  stalks  while  the  same  stock  grown  in  medium  soil  produced  18  per 
cent.  Sandy  soil  gave  30  per  cent  seed  stalks.  In  1914  plants  grown  in 
soil  made  rich  with  well-rotted  manure  in  the  case  of  early  planting,  pro- 
duced about  20  per  cent  more  seed  stalks  than  similar  plants  grown  in 
average  greenhouse  soil. 

In  1914  moving  plants  to  the  cold  frame  early,  when  their  growth  was 
checked  by  cool  temperatures  increased  the  number  of  seed  stalks  by  30 
■per  cent.  In  1915  plants  from  seed  sown  February  1  produced  70  per 
cent  seed  stalks  when  moved  to  the  cold  frame  early,  while  plants  from 
the  same  seeding  produced  practically  none  when  carried  in  the  green- 
house until  time  for  planting  in  the  field.  Plants  from  seed  sown  March 
2  produced  58  per  cent  seed  stalks  when  moved  to  the  cold  frame  early 
and  none  when  plants  were  carried  in  the  greenhouse  until  time  for  plant- 
ing in  the  field.  In  1916  plants  moved  to  the  cold  frame  early  produced 
50  per  cent  seed  stalks,  while  those  kept  in  the  greenhouse  produced  none 
As  a  result  of  work  done  in  1918  Whipple  reports  as  follows: 

Seed  planted  in  February  with  the  plants  carried  in  a  cool  house  gave  a  larger 
percentage  of  seed  stalks  than  seed  planted  one  month  later.  Preliminary  tests 
indicate  that  short  exposure  to  temperatures  from  33  to  40  degrees  F.  will  not 
cause  premature  seeding.  Where  plants  are  removed  to  the  cold  frame  early 
premature  seeding  is  evidently  the  result  of  long  exposure  to  low  temperatures, 
which  check  the  growth  of  plants,  and  not  to  short  exposure  to  temperature  near 
the  freezing  point. 

Results  of  experiments  conducted  by  the  author  in  the  gardens  of  the 
Department  of  Vegetable  Gardening  of  Cornell  University  in  1919,  1920, 


SALAD  CROPS  179 

1921  and  1922  seem  to  indicate  that  early  sowing  of  the  seed  is  at 
least  one  of  the  main  causes  of  celery  going  to  seed  prematurely. 
Checking  growth  by  drying  and  freezing  the  plants  did  not  increase  the 
percentage  of  seed  stalks,  but  on  the  other  hand,  apparently  delayed  their 
development. 

The  difference  in  the  relative  length  of  day  and  night  might  have  a 
bearing  on  celery  plants  from  early  and  late  sowing  going  to  seed  pre- 
maturely, but  no  evidence  is  available  on  the  subject. 

Pithiness. — Pithiness  or  "hollow  stalk"  has  been  ascribed  to  check 
in  growth,  too  rapid  growth  and  to  poor  seed,  especially  to  seed  produced 
on  pithy  plants.  Sandsten  and  White  (130)  and  Austin  and  White  (5) 
have  presented  evidence  to  show  that  pithiness  is  an  inherited  character. 
In  1899  Sandsten  and  White  planted  three  samples  of  Golden  Self-blanch- 
ing celery  seed,  two  American  grown  and  one  French  grown.  Two 
hundred  plants  of  each  lot  were  set  in  the  field  and  all  were  given 
the  same  attention.  At  harvest  time  40  per  cent  of  the  plants  from 
American  grown  seed  were  pithy  while  not  a  single  plant  produced  from 
the  French  grown  seed  was  pithy.  In  1901  seeds  from  five  seed  firms 
were  secured  and  100  plants  from  each  lot  were  set  out.  The  num- 
ber of  pithy  plants  in  the  five  lots  were  0,  1,  20,  31,  38  and  43. 
A  later  setting  of  plants  during  the  same  season  produced  almost 
the  same  results. 

Austin  and  White  in  1902  secured  similar  results  to  those  obtained 
during  the  previous  years.  In  1903,  35  samples  of  celery  seed  were 
tested,  and  17  of  them  produced  no  pithy  plants,  9  produced  less  than 
5  per  cent,  4  between  5  and  10  per  cent  and  the  remainder  produced 
15  to  30  per  cent  pithy  plants. 

In  1901  a  typical  Golden  Self-blanching  stalk  that  was  completely 
pithy  was  allowed  to  go  to  seed.  From  this  seed  twelve  plants  were  raised 
and  every  plant  was  pithy  and  eleven  out  of  twelve  developed  into  large, 
coarse,  green  plants.  During  the  same  year  seed  was  saved  from  a  solid 
stalk  and  from  a  pithy  stalk  of  Golden  Heart.  From  the  seed  of  the 
solid  stalk  fourteen  plants  were  started  and  twelve  harvested.  The 
twelve  were  true  to  type  and  free  from  pithiness.  From  the  pithy 
stalk  twenty  plants  were  raised  and  every  one  was  pithy.  These  showed 
a  reversion  of  the  type. 

As  a  result  of  the  experiments  mentioned  the  authors  conclude  that 
by  removing  all  plants  showing  any  pithiness  from  the  seed  plat  the  diffi- 
culty will  be  obviated. 

Diseases. — Celery  is  susceptible  to  injury  by  several  diseases  including 
late  blight  or  septoria  blight  (Septoria  peiroselini) ,  early  blight  {Cerco- 

spora  apii),  bacterial  blight,  {Pseudomonas  apii)  heart  rot , 

"damping  off"  {Rhizoctonia)  and  storage  rot  {Sclerotinia  lihertiana). 
late  blight  and  early  bhght  are  the  most  common  of  the  field  diseases 


180  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

although  baetoi-ial  Wight  is  of  importance  in  some  regions.  All  of  these 
can  be  controlled  by  thorough  sprajang  with  Bordeaux  mixture. 

Late  Blight. — This  is  the  most  serious  of  all  the  diseases  of  celery 
and  is  found  in  most  regions  where  the  crop  is  grown.  The  disease  is 
first  observed  as  brown  spots  on  the  leaves,  but  as  it  develops  these 
spots  may  unite  causing  the  entire  leaf  to  become  dry.  Small  black 
fruiting  bodies  are  usually  found  on  the  diseased  areas.  The  fungus 
lives  over  winter  in  the  refuse  from  diseased  plants.  A  considerable 
portion  of  the  commercial  seed  also  carries  the  fungus.  Some  authorities 
advise  disinfecting  the  seed  by  soaking  in  hot  water,  about  115  to  120 
degrees  F.,  for  one-half  hour.  Since  the  spores  are  usually  dead  on  2- 
year  old  seed  the  use  of  old  seed  of  good  germination  is  also  advised. 
Rotation  and  sanitation  are  of  value  in  reducing  the  injury,  but  where  the 
disease  is  present  in  the  soil  all  of  these  methods  fail  to  protect  the  crop. 
Spraying  with  5-5-50  Bordeaux  mixture  with  a  soap  sticker  will  keep  the 
disease  under  complete  control  if  the  applications  are  made  at  the  right 
time  and  the  work  is  well  done.  Spraying  to  be  most  effective  should 
begin  before  the  disease  appears,  but  if  the  spray  material  is  applied  as 
soon  as  the  first  spots  appear  and  the  plants  are  kept  well  covered  for 
the  remainder  of  the  season  the  blight  will  be  controlled.  Dusting  with 
copper-lime  dust  has  given  good  results  in  various  experiments,  but  the 
use  of  this  material  is  still  in  the  experimental  stage. 

Early  Blight. — This  disease  is  widely  distributed  in  the  United  States. 
It  appears  on  the  plants  earlier  in  the  season  than  the  late  blight,  but 
seldom  does  damage  until  hot  weather  arrives.  It  appears  on  either 
the  upper  or  lower  surface  of  the  leaves  as  small,  yellowish-green  spots. 
The  spots  enlarge  rapidly  and  in  a  few  days  they  have  a  light  brown 
central  area  gradually  turning  to  dark  brown,  surrounded  by  a  band  of 
yellow.  The  disease  also  attacks  the  leaf  stems,  producing  long,  narrow, 
water-soaked  spots. 

Control  measures  are  the  same  as  for  late  blight. 

Bacterial  Blight. — This  disease  has  been  described  by  Jagger  (77) 
as  follows: 

The  spots  are  of  a  rusty  brown  color,  irregularly  circular  in  outline  and  rarely 
exceed  5  mm.  in  diameter.  They  closely  resemble  the  Septoria  leaf  blight  spots 
and  can  be  distinguished  with  certainty  only  by  the  absence  of  pycnidia,  which 
show  as  black  dots  in  the  Septoria  spots.  Occasionally  the  spots  are  so  numerous 
as  to  cause  the  death  of  many  of  the  older  leaves,  but  usually  the  injury  consists 
in  the  disfiguring  of  the  foliage  and  in  possible  reduction  in  growth  of  plants. 
The  disease  seems  to  be  confined  to  the  leaf  blades,  spots  seldom,  if  ever  occurring 
on  the  petioles. 

Experiments  conducted  by  Jagger  (77)  at  Irondeqouit,  N.  Y.,  1915 
and  1917  showed  conclusively  that  thorough  spraying  with  Bordeaux 
mixture  will  control  this  disease. 


SALAD  CROPS 


181 


Harvesting. — Celery  may  be  harvested  as  soon  as  it  attains  the 
proper  size  and  is  well  blanched.  Early  celery  is  often  harvested  before 
the  plants  are  full  grown,  in  order  to  take  advantage  of  a  high  price.     If 


Fig.  14. — A  small  celei y  harvester  for  cutting  celery  by  hand.    {Cuurlc^y  af  U.  S.  Department 
of  Agriculture) . 

the  crop  is  to  be  marketed  immediately  after  harvest  the  stalks  should 
be  well  blanched,  but  if  it  is  to  be  put  in  storage  complete  blanching 
is  not  desired.     During  hot  weather  the  celery  should  be  taken  from  the 


Fig.  15. — A  field  of  celery  banked  with  soil  and  showing  ahorse-drawn  harvester  in  opera- 
lion.      {Courtesy  of  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture). 

field  as  soon  as  possible  after  it  is  removed  from  the  row  as  exposure  to 
sun  and  wind  causes  the  plants  to  wilt. 

In  harvesting  the  plants  are  cut  off  below  the  surface  of  the  soil, 
leaving  a  portion  of  the  roots  attached.  This  may  be  done  with  a  sharp 
knife  or  spade,  but  where  the  crop  is  grown  on  a  large  scale  special  imple- 


1§2  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

ments  are  used.  A  hand  cutter  similar  to  the  one  shown  in  Fig.  14 
is  quite  serviceable  and  is  used  to  a  considerable  extent.  The  bean 
harvester  is  used  to  a  considerable  extent  in  the  celery  regions  of  New 
York.  Various  other  types  are  used,  many  of  them  being  home-made 
affairs,  Fig.  15.  With  the  bean  harvester  and  similar  implements  two 
horses  are  used,  one  on  each  side  of  the  row  being  cut.  The  cutting  bar 
runs  under  the  row,  and  is  adjustable  so  that  the  plant  may  be  cut  at 
any  desired  depth. 

If  the  crop  is  to  be  shipped  "in  the  rough"  (without  washing  and 
bunching)  it  is  usually  stripped  in  the  field  and  packed  into  the  crates 
without  any  further  preparation.  The  filled  crates  are  then  hauled 
direct  to  the  loading  station  or  to  market.  When  it  is  to  be  washed  and 
bunched  the  celery  is  usually  hauled  from  the  field  to  the  wash-house 
where  it  is  stripped,  washed,  and  put  up  in  bunches  and  tied. 

Most  market-garden  celery  grown  for  local  markets,  is  washed  and 
bunched  on  the  farm,  while  a  large  part  of  the  truck-crop  celery  is  shipped 
in  the  rough. 

Washing  and  Bunching. — Before  the  celery  is  washed  any  diseased 
and  badly  discolored  leaves  are  removed.  It  is  put  into  a  tank  or  tub 
of  water  and  stirred  around  to  remove  the  loose  soil.  In  some  cases  a 
stiff  brush  is  used  to  remove  the  dirt,  but  this  usually  is  not  necessary. 
The  stalks  are  then  transferred  to  another  tank  or  tub  for  rinsing  after 
which  they  are  bunched.  Various  sizes  and  types  of  bunches  are  made. 
In  some  instances  three  stalks  are  tied  together,  but  for  shipping  twelve 
stalks  to  the  bunch  is  most  common.  In  sections  of  Michigan  a  round 
bunch  of  twelve  stalks  is  put  up,  while  in  New  York  and  elsewhere  a  rec- 
tangular bunch  is  more  common.  In  the  latter  the  bunches  are  three 
stalks  wide  and  four  deep.  The  bunches  are  tied  tightly  with  tape  made 
especially  for  the  purpose,  using  two  ties,  one  around  the  butts  and  one 
near  the  upper  end  of  the  leaf  stalks.  After  the  bunch  is  tied  the  hanging 
or  loose  foliage  is  trimmed  off  with  a  sharp  knife  and  the  bunch  plunged 
into  a  tub  of  clean  water  and  is  then  set  on  a  draining  table  or  board  to 
drain  before  packing.  Where  celery  is  washed  on  a  large  scale  tanks 
are  arranged  in  series  and  water  is  piped  to  all  of  them.  Tables,  tanks 
and  all  other  equipment  are  so  arranged  that  the  rough  celery  comes  in  at 
one  end  where  it  is  stripped,  passed  along  to  the  wash  tanks,  then  to  the 
bunchers  and  packers  and  finally  arrives  at  the  opposite  end  of  the  room 
ready  for  market. 

Grading. — Celery,  when  shipped  in  the  rough  is  not  graded  very 
carefully.  In  many  sections  all  marketable  stalks  are  put  together, 
while  in  some  instances  two  grades  are  made  and  these  are  based  mainly 
on  size.  The  Bureau  of  Markets,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture, 
suggests  two  grades  for  rough  celery,  U.  S.  No.  1  and  U.  S.  No.  2  and  the 
i- pocifications  are  as  follows: 


SALAD  CROPS  183 

U.  S.  No.  1  shall  consist  of  well-trimmed  stalks  of  celery  of  similar  varietal 
characteristics  which  are  not  pithy  or  wilted  and  which  are  free  from  damage 
caused  by  seed  stems,  freezing,  disease,  insects  or  mechanical  or  other  means. 

In  order  to  allow  for  variations  incident  to  proper  grading  and  handling  not 
more  than  10  per  cent,  by  count,  of  the  stalks  in  any  lot  may  be  below  the  require- 
ments of  this  grade  but  not  to  exceed  one-half  of  this  tolerance  shall  be  allowed  for 
any  one  defect. 

U.  S.  No.  2  shall  consist  of  stalks  of  celery  which  do  not  meet  the  requirements 
of  U.  S.  No.  1. 

The  following  definitions  of  terms  are  given: 

1.  "Well  trimmed"  means  that  the  outside  coarse  and  damaged  branches 
have  been  removed  and  the  portion  of  the  root  remaining  attached  to  the  stalks 
is  not  more  than  3  inches  in  length. 

2.  "Stalk"  means  an  individual  plant. 

3.  "Similar  varietal  characteristics"  means  that  these  stalks  in  any  container 
have  the  same  color  and  character  of  growth.  For  example  celery  of  Giant 
Pascal  and  Golden  Self-blanching  types  must  not  be  mixed. 

4.  "Pithy"  means  that  the  branches  have  an  open  texture  with  air  spaces  in 
the  central  portion. 

5.  "Free  from  damage"  means  that  the  celery  shall  not  be  injured  to  any 
extent  readily  apparent  upon  examination. 

6.  "Seed  stems"  means  those  stalks  which  have  seed  stems  showing  or  in 
which  the  formation  of  seed  stems  has  plainly  begun. 

Washed  celery  is  graded  into  two  or  more  grades,  the  number  depend- 
ing, to  some  extent,  on  the  demands  of  the  market,  and  also  on  the  condi- 
tion of  the  product.  After  celery  has  been  in  storage  for  a  considerable 
period  and  decay  has  developed  three  grades  are  often  made;  the  best 
grade  including  large  stalks  with  good  foliage.  The  second  grade 
consists  of  small  stalks  or  those  which  require  considerable  stripping 
to  remove  the  diseased  leaves  and  the  third  grade  consists  of  the 
hearts.  When  practically  all  of  the  foliage  has  decayed  and  stalks 
are  stripped  down  to  the  heart  the  commercial  term  "hearts"  is  applied 
to  this  grade. 

Packing. — Celery  which  is  shipped  "in  the  rough"  is  packed  in  crates 
in  the  field  without  any  preparation  except  to  strip  off  the  damaged  and 
discolored  leaves.  The  crate  is  usually  laid  on  its  side  and  the  celery 
is  placed  in  it  in  layers,  being  packed  fairly  tightly  so  that  when  the  crate 
is  full  there  is  no  shifting  of  the  product.  The  celery  should  not  be 
packed  so  tightly  that  air  can  not  circulate  through  it. 

Washed  celery  is  bunched  before  it  is  packed  in  the  crate  and  the 
bunches  are  wrapped,  or  the  crate  is  lined  with  paper.  The  paper  pre- 
vents rapid  evaporation  from  the  surface  of  the  celery  and  protects  it 
from  dirt. 


184 


VEGETABLE  CROPS 


Various  types  and  sizes  of  celery  crates  are  used  for  packing  celery 
for  market.  Downing  (38)  lists  22  well-recognized  types  of  crates  com- 
monly used  in  the  United  States,  while  Halligan  (58)  lists  21  sizes  as 
being  employed  in  Michigan.  A  few  sizes  would  serve  all  purposes  and 
a  reduction  in  the  number  would  make  for  lower  cost  and  eliminate  much 
of  the  confusion  now  existing  on  the  market.  If  a  few  standard  sizes 
were  used  it  would  be  possible  to  give  market  quotations  which  would 
be  understood  by  both  the  grower  and  the  dealer.  The  dimensions  of  the 
crate  with  the  exception  of  the  depth  can  be  standardized  quite  easily. 
The  depth  should  vary  in  order  to  accommodate  celery  of  different 
heights. 

Table  XXI  lists  the  most  important  types  of  crates  used  in  the 
different  celery-growing  regions. 


Table  XXI. — Types  and  Sizes  of  Celery  Crates 


Type  of  container 


Inside  dimension, 
in. 


Type  of  container      Inside  dimensions, 
in. 


Florida  standard 

Manatee  crate 

Michigan  highball 

Michigan  special  high- 
ball  

New  York  special 

New  York  standard 
crate 

New  York  crate 

New  York  crate 

Oregon  18-inch  crate. . . 

Oregon  20-inch  crate. .  . 

Oregon  22-inch  crate. . . 


10  X  20  X  22 
12  X  18  X  22 
10  X  12      X  18 

12  X  153^  X  18 

20  X  21       X  23 

21  X  21       X  23 


22  X  22 

21  X  22 
18  X  22 
20  X  22 

22  X  22 


X  23 
X23 
X  23 
X23 
X  23 


Texas  crate 
California  18-inch 
California  20-inch 

California  22-inch 
Colorado  crate 
New    Jersey    crate 

(oblong) 
Ohio  crate 
Kalamazoo  crate 
Decatur  box- 
Grand  Haven  box 
Hudsonville  box 


19  X  22  X  23 
18  X  22  X  24 

20  X  22  X  24 

22  X  22  X  24 

21  X  22  X  24 

18  X  20  X  28 


14 


X  18  X  28 
6  X  14  X  21 
6  X  14  X  23 
9>^  X  OJi  X  17 
9      X    9      X  17 


The  Wilhamson  Vegetable  Growers  Association  of  Williamson,  New 
York,  has  adopted  a  two-thirds  crate  which  is  16  by  22  by  23  inches  inside. 
This  crate  is  much  lighter,  more  convenient  to  handle  and  keeps  the 
.celery  in  better  condition  than  the  standard  crate. 

Storage. — To  keep  celery  successfully  for  any  considerable  period  it 
must  be  free  from  disease  and  other  injury  at  time  of  storage,  and  kept 
at  a  low  temperature,  but  not  allowed  to  freeze.  Various  methods  of 
storage  are  in  use  including  (1)  trenching  in  the  field;  (2)  storing  in  pits; 
(3)  storing  in  specially  constructed  storage  houses  and  (4)  storing  in 
cold-storage  houses. 

1.  Trenching  in  the  field  is  practiced  where  the  celery  is  to  be  held 
for  a  relatively  short  period  in  the  fall.     By  this  method  eight  to  ten 


SALAD  CROPS  185 

rows  of  celery  are  brought  together  and  set  with  the  stalks  close  together 
in  a  shallow  trench.  The  trench  is  often  opened  with  a  plow  by  running 
two  or  more  times  in  the  row  and  then  shoveling  out  the  loose  soil  in  the 
bottom.  When  the  trenching  is  done  to  protect  the  celery  against  freez- 
ing for  a  short  period  soil  is  thrown  over  the  plants  with  a  plow.  For 
longer  storage,  2  months  or  more,  boards  are  often  set  along  the  sides 
of  the  trenches  and  the  celery  is  placed  between  them.  Soil  is  then 
banked  up  along  the  sides  of  the  trench  and  a  covering  of  boards  is  put 
on.  Often  a  layer  of  straw,  hay  or  other  material  is  placed  on  the  boards 
and  over  this  a  thin  layer  of  soil  to  prevent  the  material  from  being 
blown  away.  As  the  weather  gets  cold  more  soil  is  added  to  protect  the 
celery  against  freezing.  Another  method  of  covering  the  trench  is  to 
nail  boards  together  in  the  form  of  a  V  and  invert  them  over  the  trenched 
celery.  The  boards  are  banked  with  soil  or  manure  when  necessary  to 
prevent  freezing. 

Any  type  of  trench  storage  is  objectionable  because  the  temperature 
and  moisture  cannot  be  controlled.  If  a  period  of  wet  weather  sets  in 
and  this  is  followed  by  several  warm  days  the  celery  may  rot  in  two  or 
three  weeks. 

2.  Storing  in  pits  is  practiced  by  market  gardeners  in  many  regions, 
especially  in  the  vicinity  of  Boston.  Blanching  boards  are  often  used 
for  the  roof  of  these  pits  and  when  the  boards  are  12  feet  long  the  width 
of  the  pit  is  usually  22  to  23  feet.  The  roof  is  7  to  8  feet  high  at  the 
ridge  and  3  to  4  feet  high  at  the  eaves.  It  is  supported  by  one  line  of 
posts  through  the  center  and  two  lines  half  way  between  the  ridge  and 
eaves.  The  ridge  is  made  of  2  by  6-inch  planks,  while  the  purlins  may 
be  of  the  same  material,  or  2  by  4-inch  pieces.  The  sides  of  the  pit  may 
be  of  earth,  or  of  planks  with  soil  banked  against  the  outside.  The  roof 
is  covered  with  leaves,  hay  or  other  material  and  soil  may  be  placed 
over  this  covering. 

The  celery  is  set  in  rows  3  to  4  inches  apart  and  the  plants  touching 
in  the  row.  Soil  is  firmed  around  the  roots  to  hold  the  plants  in  position. 
Sound  celery  can  be  kept  in  these  pits  until  spring,  if  proper  attention 
is  given  to  ventilation  and  temperature.  A  temperature  of  32  degrees  F. 
is  considered  the  best.  With  a  temperature  much  higher  the  storage 
season  will  be  shortened  and  at  a  temperature  below  this  there  is  danger  of 
serious  freezing.  The  green  varieties  of  celery  will  usually  keep  for  a 
longer  period  than  the  self-blanching  varieties. 

3.  Storing  in  specially  constructed  houses,  built  partly  below  ground, 
is  not  practiced  to  the  extent  that  it  was  formerly.  These  houses  are 
similar  to  those  built  for  storing  root  crops.  The  celery  is  placed  in  the 
houses  in  much  the  same  way  as  in  the  pits  described  above.  The  main 
advantage  of  the  house  over  the  pit  is  that  the  former  is  a  permanent 
gtructure  while  the  latter  must  be  made  every  year. 


186  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

4.  Cold  storage  of  celery  is  comparatively  new,  but  at  the 
present  time  it  is  the  most  popular  method  of  storage.  A  large 
part  of  the  late  truck-crop  celery,  grown  in  the  North  is  stored  in 
cold-storage  warehouses  for  6  weeks  to  3  months  or  more.  In  addition 
to  this  a  considerable  portion  of  the  California  and  Florida  celery  is 
stored  for  short  periods. 

Cold  storage  has  many  advantages  over  the  other  methods,  especially 
in  the  control  of  temperature  and  humidity.  It  is  impossible  to  control 
either  in  the  trench  method  of  storage,  and  even  in  the  pit  and  common 
storage  house,  it  is  not  possible  to  keep  the  temperature  down  during  a 
period  of  warm  weather  in  the  fall.  It  requires  less  labor  to  store 
celery  in  cold-storage  warehouses  than  in  the  other  types  of  structure. 
It  is  packed  in  crates  in  the  field  and  is  not  disturbed  until  it 
reaches  the  market.  This  method  of  storage  is  the  most  convenient 
as  the  warehouses  are  equipped  with  elevators,  trucks,  etc.  for  han- 
dling the  celery  and  they  are  usually  located  on  a  railroad  siding  so 
that  the  product  can  be  loaded  for  shipment  in  any  kind  of  weather. 
This  is  not  true  of  the  other  types  of  storage.  In  fact,  in  field  storage 
it  is  unsafe  to  remove  celery  when  the  temperature  is  very  low  on 
account  of  danger  of  freezing  and  it  is  very  disagreeable  work  under 
such  conditions. 

Most  authorities  recommend  a  temperature  of  32  degrees  F.  for  the 
celery  storage  room  and  it  is  the  aim  of  the  managers  of  most  cold-storage 
houses  to  maintain  this  temperature.  This  is  probably  safe  since  there 
is  considerable  variation  in  temperature  in  different  parts  of  the  room  due 
to  lack  of  air  circulation.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind,  however,  that 
when  the  air  temperature  is  at  32  degrees  F.  the  celery  in  the  center  of 
the  crate  is  much  higher  and  also  that  celery  does  not  freeze  at  the  freezing 
point  of  water.  In  experiments  conducted  by  the  author  (159)  the  tem- 
perature of  the  celery  averaged  4.1  degrees  F.  higher  than  the  air  at  the 
same  height  in  the  storage  room.  In  no  instance  did  the  celery  freeze, 
even  the  outside  stalks,  unless  the  temperature  remained  below  30  degrees 
F.  for  several  hours.  When  freezing  occurred  it  was  in  the  bottom  crates 
where  the  temperature  was  two  or  more  degrees  lower  than  at  the  height 
where  thermometers  are  usually  located  in  the  storage  rooms.  Where 
the  thermographs  registered  a  temperature  of  28  degrees  F.  near  the 
floor  there  was  always  some  freezing  of  the  outside  stalks  in  the  bottom 
crates,  but  none  in  crates  above  the  bottom  tier. 

The  type  and  size  of  crates  used  in  storing  celery  has  an  (effect 
on  the  keeping  of  the  product  in  storage.  Table  XXII  gives  tlu^ 
results  of  experiments  carried  on  for  4  years  1912-1913  to  1915-1916 
in  cold-storage  houses  in  New  York  State  (159).  Each  year  five 
crates  of  each  ^ypc  were  filled  with  celery  and  stored  under  identical 
conditions. 


SALAD  CROPS 


187 


Table  XXII. — Keeping   Quality   of   Celery  as  Indicated  by   the   Average 
Percentage  of  Different  Grades  Found  at  the  End  of  the  Storage 

Period 


Grades, 

per  cent 

Type  of  crate 

Sound 

Slightly 
decayed 

Badly 
decayed 

Worthless 

Standard                                 .... 

46.25 
73.10 
74.14 

78.88 

42.88                9.0 
23.12                2.9 

1.8 

Partition 

0.73 

16-inch  (for  three  years  only) . .  . 
14-inch  (for  three  years  only) . .  . 

22.10 
18.00 

3.18 

2.28 

0.58 
0.70 

Examination  of  Table  XXII  will  show  that  the  percentage  of  sound 
celery  was  highest  in  the  small  crates  and  lowest  in  the  standard  crate. 
The  larger  amount  of  decay  on  the  celery  in  the  standard  crate  was 
undoubtedly  due  to  a  higher  temperature  in  the  standard  crate  than  in 
the  others.  In  1914-1915  the  average  temperature  of  the  celery  in  the 
center  of  the  standard  crate  at  the  height  of  the  third  tier,  was  36.2 
degrees  F.  for  the  entire  storage  period  of  three  and  one-half  months, 
and  in  the  partition  crate  at  the  same  height  34.2  degrees  F. 

The  effect  of  temperature  on  the  keeping  quality  is  also  indicated 
by  the  difference  in  the  percentage  of  different  grades  of  celery  stored  at 
different  heights  in  the  storage  house.     (See  Table  XXIII.) 

Table  XXIII. — Keeping  Quality  of  Celery  as  Indicated  by  the  Average 

Percentage  op  Stalks  of  Different  Grades  Found  at  Different  Heights 

in  the  Storage  Room  When  Stored  in  Standard  Crates 


1 

jrades,  per  cen 

Tier                                         Sound 

Slightly 
decayed 

Badly 
decayed 

Worthless 

First  (bottom) 

64.9 
56.7 
50.0 
38.9 
6.2 

30.0 
34.6 
43.2 
53.7 
63.0 

2.6           2  6  ffrnst^ 

Second 

Third : 

Fourth 

Fifth  (top) 

7.2 

6.2 

6.2 

29.0 

1.3 
0.6 
1.2 
1.2 

The  small  amount  of  sound  celery  in  the  top  tier  was  due  in  part  to 
the  effect  of  the  drip  from  the  refrigerator  pipes  in  one  of  the  storage 
rooms,  but  the  difference  in  keeping  quality  of  celery  in  the  other  tiers 
was  undoubtedly  due  to  the  temperature  factor.  The  difference  in 
temperature  of  the  celery  in  the  standard  crates  and  of  the  air  is  shown  in 
Table  XXIV. 


188  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

Table  XXIV. — Temperature  of  Celery  in  the    Standard  Crate  and  of  the 
Air  in  a  Celery  Storage  Room 

I  Temperature,  degrees  Fahrenheit 


First  (bottom) 33.9  31.6 

Third 35.8  32.8 

Fifth  (top) 36.6  33.8 

A  glance  at  the  above  table  shows  that  the  temperature  in  the  center 
of  the  crate  averaged  from  2.3  to  3  degrees  higher  than  the  air,  on  the 
outside  of  the  crate,  throughout  the  storage  period.  This  indicates  that 
celery  is  very  active.  During  the  first  part  of  the  storage  period  normal 
ripening  processes  are  going  on  and  after  this  is  completed  there  is  a 
breaking  down  of  the  cells  and  this  is  followed  by  decaj^,  due  mainly  to 
soft  rot.  In  both  the  ripening  and  breaking  down  processes  heat  is  liber- 
ated. Just  before  the  breaking  down  process  begins  there  is  a  period 
when  the  temperatures  in  the  crate  and  on  the  outside  are  nearer  together 
than  at  any  other  time.  The  more  rapid  the  ripening  and  decay  proc- 
esses the  greater  the  difference  between  the  celery  and  air  temperature. 

LETTUCE 

Lettuce  is  the  most  popular  of  the  salad  crops,  being  grown  in  nearly 
all  home  gardens,  in  cities  as  well  as  on  farms.  In  commercial  value  it 
ranked  in  1919  next  to  celery,  while  in  acreage  it  was  the  leading  salad 
crop  grown  in  the  United  States.  The  increase  in  commercial  acreage 
and  value  of  lettuce  from  1909  to  1919  was  greater  than  that  for  celery. 
According  to  the  Bureau  of  Census  there  were  5,489  acres  of  lettuce 
valued  at  $1,595,085  in  1909  while  in  1919  the  acreage  was  21,544  and  the 
value  $8,535,092,  The  acreage  was  nearly  four  times  as  large  in  1919  as 
in  1909  and  the  value  of  the  1919  crop  was  more  than  five  times  that  of  the 
1909  crop.  Nearly  two-thirds  of  the  lettuce  grown  in  the  United  States 
in  1919  was  produced  in  four  states.  California  with  6,121  acres  was  in 
the  lead,  followed  by  New  York  with  3,392  acres,  Florida  2,664  and  New 
Jersey  with  1,123  acres. 

Lettuce  thrives  best  in  a  fairly  cool  growing  season  and  hence  is  grown 
in  the  South  during  the  fall,  winter  and  early  spring.  In  the  North  it  is 
grown  mainly  in  early  summer  and  in  the  fall,  since  it  is  very  difficult  to 
produce  a  good  crop  of  the  commercial  varieties  during  the  hottest  part 
of  the  summer.  In  California  it  is  grown  mainly  in  the  fall  and  winter, 
but  along  the  coast  it  can  be  grown  all  the  year.  It  does  not  head  well 
during  hot  weather  and  often  goes  to  seed  prematurely  under  unfavorable 
conditions. 


SALAD  CROPS  189 

History  and  Taxonomy. — Lettuce  is  probably  a  native  of  Europe  and 
Asia  and  has  been  in  cultivation  at  least  2,500  years.  It  is  mentioned 
frequently  by  ancient  writers,  some  as  far  back  as  500  B.  C. 

Cultivated  lettuce  Lactuca  saliva  is  related  to  the  wild  lettuce  L. 
scariola,  a  common  weed  in  the  United  States.  The  two  cross  readily 
and  are  considered  by  some  botanists  as  belonging  to  the  same  species. 
Lettuce  is  an  annual  and  belongs  to  the  Compositae  or  sunflower  family. 

There  are  three  distinct  types  of  lettuce  grown  in  the  United  States; 
namely  head,  cutting  or  leaf,  and  cos.  There  is  a  fourth  type,  called 
asparagus  lettuce,  little  known  in  this  country,  but  resembling  the  cos 
type.  This  does  not  form  a  compact  head,  but  is  grown  for  its  thick  stem. 
These  four  types  are  recognized  as  botanical  varieties  or  subspecies  and 
are  known  under  the  following  names:  Head  lettuce,  var.  capitata; 
cutting  or  leaf  lettuce  var.  crispa;  cos  or  romaine  var.  longifolia;  aspara- 
gus lettuce  var.  angustana. 

Soil  Preferences. — Lettuce  is  grown  on  practically  all  types  of  soil, 
but  the  crop  is  produced  commercially  mainly  on  sandy  loams,  silt  loams 
and  mucks.  Sandy  loams  are  preferred  to  other  types  for  a  very  early  crop 
in  the  North,  and  for  the  winter  crop  in  the  South.  A  good  muck  soil  is 
considered  almost  ideal  for  lettuce  because  of  the  high  water-holding 
capacity  and  the  ease  with  which  this  soil  is  worked.  A  large  part  of  the 
lettuce  produced  during  the  summer  in  New  York  and  Michigan  is  grown 
on  muck. 

The  soil  for  lettuce  should  be  deep  and  well  drained,  but  retentive  of 
moisture  since  the  lettuce  plant  has  a  small  root  system  and  is  therefore 
a  poor  forager.  The  soil  should  be  thoroughly  prepared  before  the  crop  is 
planted  as  most  of  the  cultivation  is  done  by  hand,  and  hand  tools  cannot 
be  used  to  good  advantage  on  rough,  poorly-prepared  soil.  After  plow- 
ing, disking  and  harrowing  with  the  ordinary  implements  it  is  desirable 
to  use  a  meeker  harrow  on  upland  soils  and  a  drag  or  light  roller  on  muck 
soils.  Either  the  meeker  harrow,  or  the  drag  will  make  a  smooth  surface 
and  leave  the  soil  in  good  condition  for  seed  sowing. 

Manures  and  Fertilizers. — Where  lettuce  is  grown  on  upland  soils 
in  the  North  manure  is  usually  used  in  large  quantities  and  this  is  con- 
sidered necessary  in  order  to  keep  the  soil  in  good  physical  condition. 
Large  quantities  of  manure  are  not  necessary  if  the  humus  is  supplied  in 
green-manure  crops  and  the  nutrients  in  commercial  fertilizers.  Results 
of  6  years  experimental  work  on  a  Miami  silt  loam  soil  at  the  Rhode 
Island  Experiment  Station  (66)  show  that  16  tons  of  manure  supple- 
mented with  1,500  pounds  of  a  4-10-2  fertilizer  produced  larger  crops 
than  32  tons  of  manure  alone.  The  average  yearly  yield  of  marketable 
lettuce  was  16,500  pounds  per  acre  where  32  tons  of  manure  were  applied, 
19,000  pounds  on  the  plats  having  an  application  of  16  tons  of  manure 
and  1,500  pounds  of  a  4-10-2  fertilizer.     Where  more  nitrogen  was 


190  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

added  to  the  fertilizer  no  increase  in  yield  was  secured  but  extra  phos- 
phorus increased  the  yield  900  pounds  to  the  acre.  Extra  potash  resulted 
in  a  decrease  in  yield. 

The  percentage  of  No.  1  heads  was  much  higher  on  the  plats  treated 
with  16  tons  of  manure  and  the  commercial  fertilizer  than  on  those  treated 
with  32  tons  of  manure,  with  the  exception  of  the  plats  receiving  additional 
potash.  On  this  plat  the  total  yield  was  less  than  on  the  other  and  the 
percentage  of  No.  1  lettuce  was  much  lower.  There  is  considerable 
evidence  that  heavy  application  of  potash  salts  increases  "tip-burn" 
and  this  may  have  been  a  factor  in  decreasing  both  the  yield  and  the 
percentage  of  No.  1  heads  in  these  experiments,  although  it  is  not  men- 
tioned by  Hartwell  and  Crandall  (66).  In  fact  they  make  no  explanation 
of  the  low  yields  on  the  plats  given  additional  potash.  (See  Tabic  IV 
for  data.) 

On  mineral  soils  the  humus  content  must  be  maintained  and  if  manure 
is  not  used,  green-manure  crops  should  be  turned  under.  In  addition  to 
the  green-manure  crops  an  application  of  1,000  to  2,000  pounds  of  high- 
grade  fertilizer  should  be  used.  A  fertilizer  containing  4  to  6  per  cent 
ammonia,  6  to  8  per  cent  phosphoric  acid  and  4  to  8  per  cent  potash  will 
give  good  results  if  the  soil  and  weather  conditions  are  favorable  for 
lettuce  growing. 

On  muck  soils  a  fertilizer  containing  2  to  4  per  cent  ammonia,  8  per 
cent  phosphoric  acid  and  4  to  8  per  cent  potash  is  used.  Applications 
of  1,500  to  2,000  pounds  to  the  acre  are  commonly  made.  In  view  of  the 
evidence  concerning  the  effects  of  potash  salts  on  "tip-burn"  it  is  inad- 
visable to  use  more  than  4  per  cent  potash  where  1,500  pounds  or  more 
of  the  mixture  is  applied  to  the  acre. 

Broadcasting  the  fertilizer  before  the  crop  is  planted  is  the  most 
common  method  of  applying.  Additional  applications  of  nitrate  of  soda 
are  often  made  while  the  crop j^fe  growing,  using  100  to  200  pounds  to  the 
acre  at  each  application.  Usually  not  more  than  two  applications  are 
made. 

Growing  Plants  for  Transplanting. — For  a  very  early  crop  of  lettuce 
the  seed  is  sown  in  a  greenhouse  or  hotbed  several  weeks  before  time  for 
setting  in  the  field.  If  they  are  to  be  taken  direct  from  the  seed  bed 
to  the  field  5  to  6  weeks  is  suflicient  time  to  allow  between  seed  sowing 
and  outdoor  planting.  This  method  is  not  satisfactory  and  the  more 
common  practice  is  to  sow  the  seed  8  to  10  weeks  before  the  date  for  field 
setting  and  to  transplant  the  young  plants  when  they  are  about  3 
weeks  old.  The  plants  are  spaced  1}^  by  1}4  or  2  by  2  inches  apart 
either  direct  to  the  soil  of  the  greenhouse,  hotbed,  or  cold  frame,  or 
preferably  into  flats.  They  should  be  hardened  before  being  set  in  the 
field  and  this  is  often  done  by  moving  them  into  a  cold  frame  and 
exposing  them  gradually  to  lower  tcmj^oratures. 


SALAD  CROPS  lul 

Planting  in  the  Field. — Hardened  plants  and  seeds  may  be  planted  as 
soon  as  hard  freezes  are  over.  In  many  sections  of  the  North  seed  is 
sown  at  intervals  throughout  the  spring  and  summer  while  in  the  South 
plantings  are  made  from  late  summer  through  the  fall  and  winter.  In 
the  interior  valleys  of  California  the  first  planting  is  usually  during  the 
latter  part  of  August  and  other  plantings  are  made  in  October  and  January 
or  February.  Along  the  coast,  where  the  climate  is  moderate  the  crop 
may  be  planted  any  time  during  the  year.  In  most  sections  of  the  United 
States  head  lettuce  cannot  be  grown  successfully  during  the  hottest  part 
of  the  average  summer.  Even  in  New  York  and  Michigan  it  is  seldom 
that  a  first-class  crop  is  produced  in  August,  although  an  occasional  good 
crop  is  secured  at  that  time. 

Where  the  seed  is  sown  direct,  a  hand  seed  drill  is  usually  used  and 
2  to  3  pounds  are  sown  to  the  acre  with  the  rows  spaced  12  to  15  inches 
apart.  With  wider  spacing  for  horse  cultivation  less  seed  is  required. 
The  plants  are  thinned  to  stand  8  to  12  inches  apart,  the  distance  depend- 
ing upon  the  variety,  and,  to  some  extent,  upon  the  richness  of  the  soil. 
As  soon  as  the  plants  are  well  established  they  are  usually  "blocked  out" 
with  a  hoe  and  later  the  clump  is  thinned  to  a  single  plant.  The  thin- 
ning should  not  be  delayed  or  crowding  will  produce  weak  spindling 
plants.  In  some  sections  where  lettuce  is  grown  on  muck  soil,  the  plants 
removed  in  thinning  are  transplanted  to  other  beds,  but  it  is  doubtful 
if  this  is  a  good  practice.  The  plants  which  are  left  usually  produce 
a  better  crop  than  those  transplanted  and  the  latter  operation  is  probably 
more  expensive  than  thinning. 

Where  plants  are  set  out  the  rows  are  spaced  the  same  distance  apart 
as  for  seed  sown  direct  to  the  field.  In  the  rows  they  are  given  about 
the  same  space  as  the  thinned  plants.  The  plants  are  set  by  hand,  the 
method  depending  upon  the  kind  of  soil  and  the  character  of  the  plants. 
If  the  plants  have  been  transplanted  prior  to  going  to  the  field  a  trowel  is 
often  used,  or  a  small  shallow  furrow  may  be  made  with  the  plow  attach- 
ment of  the  hand  cviltivator.  On  muck  soils  the  hole  for  the  plant  is 
usually  made  by  hand  since  the  soil  is  very  light. 

When  the  soil  is  dry,  watering  is  necessary  either  before  or  after  setting 
the  plants.  This  is  especially  important  when  they  are  taken  from  the 
seed  bed,  since  no  soil  adheres  to  the  roots  of  the  plants. 

Cultivation. — Frequent,  shallow  cultivation  is  important  for  lettuce 
as  the  plants  cannot  compete  successfully  with  weeds.  The  root  system 
of  lettuce  plants  is  very  small  and  many  of  the  roots  are  near  the  sur- 
face; therefore  maintaining  a  soil  mulch  by  shallow  cultivation  is  impor- 
tant for  water  conservation.  When  weeds  are  troublesome  the  knife 
attachments  of  hand  cultivators,  or  scuffle  hoes  are  better  than  the 
cultivator  teeth.  The  knives  and  scuffle  hoes  cut  off  the  weeds  below 
the  surface  and  leave  a  thin  layer  of  mulch,  without  injuring  the  lettuce 


192  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

roots.  When  the  surface  soil  is  loose  and  no  weeds  are  present  nothing  is 
gained  by  continuing  cultivation.  On  the  other  hand,  cultivation  under 
these  conditions  may  be  injurious  by  bringing  moist  soil  from  below,  to 
the  surface  where  it  will  dry  out,  and,  also  by  breaking  the  roots.  There 
is  a  tendncy  to  deepen  cultivation  as  the  surface  becomes  dry,  due  prob- 
ably to  the  desire  to  see  moist  soil.  Of  course,  this  is  a  mistake  for  all 
soil  brought  to  the  surface  dries  out  if  the  weather  remains  dry.  In  fact 
this  is  the  method  used  in  the  spring  to  hasten  the  drying  of  the  soil. 

Hand  weeding  between  the  plants  in  the  row  is  usually  necessary 
and  this  is  a  tedious  and  expensive  operation.  On  muck  soil  this  is 
usually  done  with  the  hands  as  the  soil  is  light,  but  on  upland  soils 
hoes  are  often  used  for  a  part  of  the  work.  Loosening  the  soil  by  hoeing 
is  an  advantage  since  a  mulch  is  formed  between  the  plants. 

Varieties. — The  great  popularity  of  lettuce  and  the  varied  conditions 
under  which  the  crop  is  grown  are  probably  responsible  for  the  large 
number  of  varieties  and  the  still  greater  number  of  varietal  names. 
Tracy  (166)  in  his  classification  of  lettuce  recognized  over  one  hundred 
distinct  varieties.  Lester  L.  Morse  (97)  of  the  C.  C.  Morse  and  Company, 
San  Francisco,  California,  one  of  the  largest  lettuce  seed  growers,  states 
that  twenty  varieties  cover  practically  all  of  those  grown  in  America. 
Lettuce  varieties  have  been  classified  by  various  authorities,  the  most 
complete  classification  being  that  worked  out  by  Tracy  (166)  which  is 
as  follows : 

Class  I.     Butter  varieties. 

Subclass  1.     Cabbage-heading  varieties. 

Color  Divison    I.     Plants   wholly    green.     Philadelphia   Butter,  Black  Seeded 

Tennis  Ball,  etc. 
Color  Division  II.     Plants  tinged  brownish,  larger  part  green.     California  Cream 

Butter,  Big  Boston,  White  Seeded  Tennis  Ball,  etc. 
Color  Division  III.     Plants  brownish,  small  portion  only  greenish.     Brown  Head 
Eureka,  Sugar  Loaf. 
Subclass  II.     Bunching  varieties. 

Color  Division  I.     Plants  wholly  green.     Oak-leaved,  Earliest  Cutting,  Golden 

Heart,  Lancaster. 
Color  Division  II.     Plants  brownish. 
Class  II.     Crisp  varieties. 

Subclass  I.     Cabbage-heading  varieties. 

Color  Division  I.     Plants  wholly  green.     Brittle  Ice,  Hanson,  New  York. 
Color  Division  II.     Plants  tinged  with  brownish,  large  part  greenish.     Density, 

Iceberg,  Marblehead,  Mammoth. 
Color  Division  III.     Plants  brownish,  small  part  only  greenish.    Charticr,  Mignon- 
ette, Sugar  Loaf. 
Subclass  II.     Bunching  varieties. 

Color  Division  I.     Plants  wholly  green.     Black-seeded  Simpson,  Boston  Curled, 

Grand  Rapids,  White-seeded  Simpson. 
Color    Division    II.     Plants   brownish,    small    part    only    greenish.     American 
Gathering,  Charticr,  Prize  Head. 


SALAD  CROPS 


193 


Class  III.     Cos  varieties. 
Subclass  I.     Spatulate-leaved  varieties. 
Heading  Division  I.     Self-closing. 

Color  Division  I,     Plants  wholly  green.     Dwarf  White  Cos,  Express  Cos, 

Giant  White  Cos,  Green  Cos,  Paris  White  Cos,  Prince  of  Wales  Cos. 
Color  Division  II.     Plants  brownish.     Red  Winter  Cos. 
Heading  Division  II.     Loose-closing.     Bath  Cos. 
Subclass  II.     Lanceolate-leaved  varieties.     Asparagus. 
Subclass  III.     Lobed-leavcd  varieties.     Asparagus  Lobed-leaved. 

Of  the  butter  varieties  the  most  important  are  Big  Boston  (Fig.  16), 
California  Cream  Butter,  Tennis  Ball,  both  white-seeded  and  black- 
seeded,  Deacon,  Wayahead  and  Salamander.     The  Big  Boston  is  grown 


Fig.  16. — A  good  head  of  Big  Boston  lettuce,  the  best  known  of  the  butter  varieties. 
(Courtesy,  C.  C.  Morse  &  Co.) 


commercially  to  a  greater  extent  than  all  other  varieties  of  this  group, 
California  Cream  Butter  and  Wayahead  withstand  heat  better  than 
the  Big  Boston  and  do  not  go  to  seed  as  quickly. 

Among  the  crisp  varieties  of  head  lettuce  the  Hanson,  Los  Angeles, 
Iceberg,  New  York  (Fig.  17)  (Wonderful  or  New  York  Wonderful), 
Crisp  as  Ice  and  Mignonette  are  among  the  best  known.  Hanson  is 
grown  mostly  for  home  use  and  for  local  markets.  Los  Angeles  is  the 
most  popular  shipping  variety  grown  in  California.  It  develops  a  large, 
solid  head,  matures  quickly  and  has  a  good  flavor.  It  withstands  cold 
without  injury,  but  does  not  thrive  well  in  hot  weather  as  it  quickly 


194 


VEGETABLE  CROPS 


goes  to  seed  under  high  temperatures.  Iceberg  is  grown  extensively  in 
CaUfornia  and  other  sections  of  the  West,  and  to  some  extent  in  the  East. 
This  variety  is  one  of  the  best  of  the  large  heading  varieties  to  grow 
in  hot  weather.  It  is  similar  to  the  Los  Angeles.  Mignonette  is  one 
of  the  smallest,  if  not  the  smallest  heading  variety.  It  is  excellent  in 
quality,  but  is  not  important  as  a  commercial  variety  because  of  its  small 
size,  reddish  brown  color  and  its  habit  of  going  to  seed  quickly.  New 
York  is  similar  to  Iceberg  in  appearance  and  (luality.     It  withstands  hot 


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fe 

m 

H^^^ 

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^^ 

Fig.  17. — An  ideal  head  of  lettuce  of  the  cri.sp  ela 


(Courlc^y,  C.  C.  Morse  &  Co.) 


weather  well.  Among  the  crisp  varieties  are  found  the  best  sorts  to 
plant  for  maturity  during  very  hot  weather  since  none  of  the  butter 
varieties  will  withstand  as  much  heat  as  Iceberg  and  New  York.  How- 
ever, the  crisp  varieties  are  not  so  popular  on  many  markets  as  the  butter 
varieties  and  for  this  reason  Big  Boston  and  others  of  this  type  are  grown 
even  under  conditions  unfavorable  for  its  best  development. 

Among  the  leaf  varieties.  Grand  Rapids  (Fig.  18)  Prize  Head,  early 
Curled  or  White-seeded  Simpson  and  Black-seeded  Simpson  are  the 
most  popular.  These  are  not  grown  to  any  great  extent  in  the  field, 
although  they  are  very  popular  in  the  home  garden.  For  growing  in 
greenhouses  during  the  winter  these  varieties  are  used  almost  exclusively 
except  in  sections  of  the  East  as  in  the  vicinity  of  Boston  and  Rochester. 

White  Paris  Cos  (Fig.  19),  (White  Cos,  Paris  White  Cos)  is  the  most 
important  variety  in  the  cos  class,  although  Express  Cos  and  Giant  White 


SALAD  CROPS 


195 


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18. — Full-grown  plant  of  Grand  Rapids  lettuce,   one  of  the  best  representatives  of 
the  bunching  varieties.      {Courtesy,  C.  C.  Morse  &  Co.) 


Fig.  19. 


-Cos  lettuce  showing  the  general  character  of  the  head  and  the  shape  of_the 
leaves.      {Courtesy,  C.  C.  Morse  &  Co.) 


196  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

Cos  are  grown  to  some  extent.  Cos  lettuce  is  becoming  more  popular 
each  succeeding  year  and  is  being  grown  at  the  present  time  on  quite  a 
large  scale  in  various  sections  of  the  United  States.  Considerable  acre- 
ages are  grown  on  the  muck  soils  in  New  York  and  other  states. 

Diseases. — Lettuce  is  affected  by  a  number  of  diseases  including 
bottom  rot  {Rhizodonia  solani),  drop  {Sclerotinia  lihertiana  and  S. 
Minor),  gray  mold  or  Botrytis  rot  (Botrytis  cinerea)  anthracnose 
(Marssonia  panationiana)  mildew  (Bremia  laducce),  tip-burn  and  mosaic. 
Fortunately  these  diseases,  when  present,  are  not  always  serious,  although 
under  favorable  conditions  any  one  may  greatly  injure  or  even  practically 
destroy  the  crop. 

Bottom  Rot. — This  disease  may  effect  the  plants  in  any  stage  of 
development,  frequently "  causing  damping-off  of  the  seedlings.  On 
plants  of  considerable  size  the  disease  shows  as  rusty,  slightly  sunken 
areas  on  the  leaf  stalks  where  they  come  in  contact  with  the  soil  and 
sometimes  the  total  rotting  of  the  leaves.  The  entire  head  may  rot  and 
remain  as  a  blackened  stump.  No  means  of  control  are  known  that  are 
practicable  in  the  field.  In  the  greenhouse,  soil  sterilization  will  prevent 
the  development  of  the  disease.  Thorough  drainage  and  frequent  cultiva- 
tion to  dry  the  surface  soil  will  reduce,  to  some  extent,  the  development 
of  bottom  rot. 

The  more  upright  types  of  lettuce  are  less  affected  and  some  progress 
has  been  made  in  developing  a  type  with  the  heading  characteristics  of 
the  Big  Boston  and  the  erect  habit  of  growth  of  the  cos.  Crosses  made 
by  Dr.  H.  W.  Dye  of  the  Department  of  Plant  Pathology,  Cornell  Uni- 
versity are  promising,  although  the  work  is  in  the  early  experimental 


Drop. — Plants  affected  by  this  disease  become  water-soaked  and 
collapse  with  a  soft  rot  in  a  few  hours.  The  rotting  of  the  plants  first 
attracts  attention.  On  the  under  side  of  the  lower  leaves  will  be  seen  a 
white  fungus  and  later  there  appear  nodules  which  become  black.  These 
black  bodies  can  be  found  in  any  of  the  decayed  parts  of  the  plants. 
This  disease  is  widespread  and  often  causes  large  losses,  sometimes  whole 
fields  of  lettuce  being  destroyed.  The  organism  also  attacks  other  plants. 
No  very  satisfactory  control  measures  for  field  lettuce  are  known, 
although  prompt  removal  of  affected  plants  and  drenching  the  soil  with  a 
solution  of  copper  sulphate  is  reported  to  be  of  value.  This,  however, 
is  not  a  very  practicable  method  of  treating  large  areas.  In  the  green- 
house, soil  sterilization  is  practiced  to  control  this  and  other  diseases. 

Gray  Mold. — This  disease  is  seldom  serious  in  the  field,  but  is  an 
important  disease  of  greenhouse  lettuce.  It  first  appears  on  one  leaf  or 
on  one  side  of  a  plant,  but  it  maj^  spread  and  destroy  the  entire  plant. 
A  gray  fungus  growth  occurs  on  the  rotted  tissues.  In  the  greenhouse 
care  in  watering  and  ventilating  will  usually  keep  this  disease  in  check. 


8ALAD  CROPS  197 

Anthracnose, — Plants  affected  by  this  disease  first  show  lesions  on 
the  leaves.  These  lesions  appear  as  roundish  water-soaked  spots  which 
become  brown.  Later  the  affected  tissues  drop  out,  giving  the  leaf  a 
shot-holed  appearance.  On  the  midrib  the  spots  are  sunken  and  irregular 
in  outline.  Rotation  of  crops  is  recommended  for  this  disease  in  the 
field.  In  the  greenhouse,  sanitation  and  maintaining  a  relatively  high 
temperature  will  aid  in  controlling  the  anthracnose. 

Mildew. — This  is  primarily  a  disease  of  greenhouse  lettuce  and  can 
be  kept  in  check  by  proper  control  of  watering,  ventilating  and  heating. 

Tip-burn. — This  disease  is  apparently  not  due  to  any  parasitic  organ- 
ism but  to  unfavorable  conditions.  Blackening  of  the  margins  of  the 
leaves  is  characteristic  of  this  disease  and  this  may  be  found  on  the  inner 
leaves.  Tip-burn  is  often  very  serious  when  lettuce  matures  in  very  hot 
weather  and  is  seldom  of  much  importance  during  cool  weather  of  fall. 
There  is  evidence  that  an  excess  of  potash  (and  possibly  nitrogen)  may 
increase  the  development  of  tip-burn.  No  control  measures  have  been 
found. 

Mosaic. — Jagger  (78)  has  reported  on  a  mosaic  disease  of  lettuce 
which  is  very  serious  in  Florida  and  in  South  Carolina.  Probably  the 
same  disease  is  present  in  New  York  and  other  states  since  mosaic  is 
common  some  years  in  the  lettuce-growing  sections.  Jagger  has  shown 
that  this  disease  is  transmitted  by  a  species  of  aphis,  and  since  no  organ- 
ism has  been  found  the  method  of  control  would  seem  to  be  to  protect 
the  plants  from  the  insects.  Spraying  with  some  of  the  tobacco  sprays 
or  dusting  with  nicotine  dust  would  probably  be  of  value. 

Insects. — The  most  important  insect  pests  of  lettuce  are  various 
species  of  plant  lice  or  aphis.  Control  measures  for  these  are  the  same 
as  for  the  spinach  aphis.  The  cabbage  looper  also  attacks  lettuce.  For 
description  of  this  insect  and  control  measures  suggested  see  under  cab- 
bage. Cutworms  sometimes  injure  lettuce  early  in  the  season  and  may 
be  controlled  by  poison  mash  as  recommended  in  Chapter  XIII. 

Harvesting.^ — The  stage  of  development  at  which  lettuce  is  harvested 
depends  upon  the  type  and  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  grown.  Head 
lettuce,  when  grown  for  market,  is  allowed  to  grow  to  full  size  and  to 
develop  a  solid  head.  When  grown  for  home  use  it  is  often  harvested 
before  the  head  is  well  formed,  but  when  used  as  leaves  there  is  no 
advantage  in  growing  a  heading  type.  Leaf  lettuce  grown  for  home  use 
is  harvested  at  any  time  after  the  plants  get  large  enough  for  use.  A 
common  practice  is  to  thin  the  plants  at  various  "times,  removing  the 
largest  ones  for  use  and  leaving  the  small  ones  to  develop.  In  this  way 
one  planting  will  supply  the  table  for  a  considerable  period.  When 
grown  for  market  leaf  lettuce  is  usually  allowed  to  develop  to  full  size, 
unless  the  price  is  very  high  prior  to  that  time,  in  which  case  the  plants 
are  cut  any  time  after  they  become  half-grown.     Of  course,  a  larger  yield 


198 


VEGETA BLE  CROPS 


will  be  produced  on  a  given  area  if  the  plants  are  allowed  to  develop  to 
full  size  than  if  cut  earlier,  but  the  retiu'ns  may  be  as  high  under  the 
latter  practice. 

Lettuce  is  usually  harvested  by  hand,  using  a  long  sharp  knife  to  cut 
the  plant  just  above  the  surface  of  the  ground.  Better  results  are 
secured,  however,  if  the  plant  is  cut  above  the  lower  leaves  or  those 
which  are  in  contact  with  the  soil.  This  is  especially  true  if  the  crop  is 
affected  with  lettuce  drop.  Ramsey  and  Markell  (120)  have  shown  that  by 
careful  cutting  and  removing  the  bottom  leaves  of  lettuce  grown  in  fields 
where  ''drop"  is  serious,  it  arrives  on  the  market  in  much  better  condi- 
tion than  lettuce  cut  in  the  ordinary  manner.  During  the  winter  of 
1913-1914  experiments  were  conducted  in  Florida  to  determine  the  effects 
of  different  methods  of  handling  on  the  quality  of  the  product  when  it 
reached  the  market.  Some  of  the  lettuce  was  carefully  cut  so  as  to 
remove  the  diseased  leaves  while  comparable  lots  were  cut  in  the  ordinary 
way.  Nine  lots  were  shipped  to  New  York  and  were  examined  on  arrival 
and  3  days  later.     The  results  are  given  in  Table  XXV. 

Table    XXV. — Average    Market  Condition  of  Nine  Experimental  Lots  of 
Carefully  Cut  and  Commercially  Cut  Lettuce  Shipped  to  Northern  Mar- 
kets During  the  Season  of  1913-1914 


At  withdrawal 

Three  days  after  with- 
drawal 

Treatment 

Carefully 

Commerciallv 

Carefully    Commercially 

cut 

cut 

cut 

cut 

Non-preeooled : 

Prime  heads,  per  cent 

59.6 

25.7 

46.4 

17.3 

Marketable'  heads,  per  cent 

100.0 

96.5 

99.2 

91.8 

Precooled: 

Prime  heads,  per  cent 

71.5 

33.7 

58.0 

22.8 

Marketable  heads,  per  cent 

100.0  . 

99.6 

100.0 

98.4 

'  The  term  "marketable"  as  used  here  includes  all  heads  with  sound  hearts,  even 
though  the  outer  leaves  were  in  some  cases  more  or  less  decayed. 

Table  XXVI  shows  the  percentage  of  heads  affected  with  drop  rot  in 
different  stages  of  development  at  the  time  the  lettuce  was  withdrawn 
from  the  car  and  after  it  was  held  in  the  commission  house  for  three  days. 


In  addition  to  the  factors  recorded,  the  difference  in  appearance  of  the 
various  lots  was  a  point  of  great  importance.  In  almost  every  case  the  carefully 
cut  lots  were  far  more  attractive,  not  only  because  less  decayed  but  also  because 
the  heads  were  cleaner  owing  to  the  removal  of  the  dirt}'  lower  leaves. 


SALAD  CROPS 


199 


Table  XXVI. — Average  Percentages  of  Decay  in  Nine  Experimental  Lots 

OF  Carefully  Cut  and  Commercially  Cut  Lettuce  Shipped  to  Northern 

Markets  During  the  Season  of  1913-19141 


Treatment 


At  withdrawal 


Carefully 
cut 


Commer- 
cially cut 


Three  days  after 
withdrawal 


Carefully 
cut 


Commer- 
cially cut 


Non-precooled : 

Heads  showing  slight  drop  rot.  . , 
Heads  showing  medium  drop  rot . 
Heads  showing  complete  drop  rot 

Total  drop  rot 

Precooled: 

Heads  showing  slight  drop  rot. .  . 
Heads  showing  medium  drop  rot. 
Heads  showing  complete  drop  rot 

Total  drop  rot 


7.9 
0.9 
0.0 


4.7 
0.4 
0.0 

5.1 


24.2 

16.9 

3.4 

44.5 


20.6 
6.3 
0.3 

27,2 


11.7 
3.3 
0.3 

15.3 


8.5 
1.4 
0.0 

9.9 


30.3 

19.6 

5.9 

55.8 


26.8 
8.3 
1.6 

36.7 


'  No  record  of  bacterial  decay  was  obtained  in  these  lots. 

In  addition  to  the  experimental  shipping  lots,  16  lots  were  held  in  a 
refrigerator  car  at  Pahnetto,  Florida.  These  were  inspected  in  the  same 
way  and  at  about  the  same  time  as  those  shipped  to  New  York.  The 
difference  between  the  carefully  cut  and  commercially  cut  lots  were  even 
more  striking  than  in  the  lots  shipped.  The  effect  on  the  carrying  qual- 
ity of  lettuce  of  the  different  methods  of  handling  employed  was  relatively 
the  same  in  both  lots. 

Grading. — Lettuce  is  not  carefully  graded  under  most  conditions. 
Head  lettuce  in  particular,  should  be  graded  into  at  least  two  grades, 
the  first  including  the  large  solid  heads  and  the  second  grade  including 
those  heads  which  do  not  meet  the  requirements  for  the  best  grade  but 
are  still  marketable.  The  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Markets  has  suggested  three 
grades,  U.  S.  Fancy,  U.  S.  No.  1,  and  U.  S.  No.  2.  The  specifications 
for  these  are  as  follows : 


U.  S.  Fancy  shall  consist  of  sound  heads  of  lettuce  of  similar  varietal  character- 
istics which  are  fresh,  neatly  trimmed  and  firm;  which  are  not  wilted,  decayed, 
burst,  or  showing  seed  stems  or  doubles  and  which  are  free  from  damage  caused 
by  freezing,  tip-burn,  disease,  insects  or  mechanical  or  other  means. 

Each  head  of  lettuce  shall  weigh  not  less  than  1  pound. 


200  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

In  order  to  allow  for  variations  incident  to  commercial  grading  and  handling 
5  per  cent,  by  weight,  of  any  lot  may  be  below  the  prescribed  minimum  weight 
and,  in  addition  4  per  cent,  by  weight,  of  any  lot  may  be  below  the  remaining 
requirements  of  this  grade. 

U.  S.  No.  1  shall  consist  of  sound  heads  of  lettuce  of  similar  varietal  character- 
istics which  are  fresh,  partially  trimmed  and  reasonably  firm;  which  are 
not  wilted,  decayed,  burst,  or  showing  seed  stems  or  doubles  and  which  are  prac- 
tically free  from  damage  caused  by  freezing,  tip-burn,  disease,  insects  or 
mechanical  or  other  means. 

Each  head  of  lettuce  shall  weigh  not  less  than  ^i  pound. 

In  order  to  allow  for  variations  incident  to  commercial  grading  and  handling 
5  per  cent,  by  weight,  of  any  lot  may  be  below  the  prescribed  minimum  weight 
and,  in  addition  7  per  cent,  by  weight,  may  be  below  the  remaining  requirements 
of  this  grade. 

U.  S.  No.  2  shall  consist  of  heads  of  lettuce  which  do  not  meet  the  require- 
ments of  U.  S.  No.  1. 

Packing. — Before  packing  lettuce  it  should  be  trimmed  to  remove 
diseased  and  dirty  leaves,  and  separated  into  grades,  in  case  any  sepa- 
ration is  made.  In  some  sections  the  packing  is  done  mostly  in  the  field 
and  in  others  the  lettuce  is  hauled  to  a  packing  shed  where  it  is  trimmed 
and  packed.  In  packing  head  lettuce  in  crates  or  boxes  the  bottom  layer 
is  placed  with  the  stem  end  down  and  the  others  reversed,  thus  protecting 
the  heads  in  transit.  When  baskets  and  hampers  are  used  the  same 
method  of  packing  may  be  used,  or  all  of  the  heads  with  the  exception  of 
the  top  layer  may  be  placed  with  the  stem  end  down.  The  top  layer  is 
always  placed  with  the  stem  end  up.  In  some  regions  when  lettuce  is 
graded  into  two  grades,  the  better  grade  is  often  packed  in  crates  and  the 
second  grade  in  one-bushel  hampers. 

Lettuce  is  marketed  in  about  thirty  styles  of  boxes  and  crates  and 
in  various  types  and  sizes  of  baskets,  hampers  and  barrels.  For  head 
lettuce  crates  are  much  better  than  baskets  as  they  are  much  more 
attractive  and  show  off  the  product  to  better  advantage.  Among  the 
more  popular  crates  are  the  New  York  type  which  holds  2  dozen  heads 
and  is  made  in  sizes,  7}^  by  16  by  20  inches,  8  by  16  by  20  and  7}^  by  163^ 
by  19  and  the  California  crates  holding  3  to  5  dozen  heads  made  in  five 
sizes,  13  by  19  by  22^,  12  by  18  by  22^,  13  by  17  by  22)^  10  by  13)^ 
by  18  and  13  by  18  by  21)^.  Downing  gives  the  dimensions  and  capacity 
of  20  different  types  of  crates  and  makes  the  following  comment  on  them : 

A  study  of  the  dimensions  of  those  crates  shows  that  many  are  similar  in  size. 
There  appears  to  be  a  very  strong  demand  for  a  crate  holding  2  dozen  heads  of 
lettuce.  The  dimensions  of  the  2-dozen  crate  could  certainly  be  readily 
standardized.  There  is  also  a  considerable  call  for  a  lettuce  crate  holding  from 
three  to  five  dozen  heads.  The  California  standard  crate  with  the  inside  dimen- 
sions 13  by  18  by  221^  inches  is  suggested  as  a  possible  standard  crate  in  the  larger 
size. 


SALAD  CROPS  201 

Storage.— Lettuce  is  not  usually  considered  a  storage  product,  but 
under  good  refrigeration  it  can  be  kept  for  a  period  of  3  to  4  weeks  pro- 
vided it  arrives  at  the  storage  house  in  good  condition.  For  storage 
it  is  packed  as  for  market  and  is  placed  in  cold  storage  where  the  tem- 
perature is  kept  at  about  32  degrees  F.  Storage  is  of  great  importance 
since  it  often  happens  that  the  market  is  glutted  for  a  few  weeks  and 
then  is  nearly  bare  for  a  period.  Storage  prevents  this  glut  and  tides 
the  market  over  the  period  of  slack  production.  This  helps  both  the 
producer  and  the  consumer. 

In  some  sections  lettuce  is  hauled  direct  from  the  field  to  the  storage 
house,  where  it  is  precooled  before  it  is  loaded  into  cars.  This  may  be 
a  good  practice,  but  the  same  results  can  be  secured  in  a  properly-con- 
structed refrigerator  car.  Well-constructed  cars  with  basket  bunkers 
and  false  floors,  give  good  refrigeration  and  rapid  cooling,  especially 
if  salt  is  used  with  the  ice  at  the  first  icing.  Precooling  by  placing  in 
cold  storage,  is  not  important,  if  the  lettuce  can  be  loaded  direct  into 
cooled  cars  equipped  with  basket  bunkers  and  false  floors.  In  fact  it 
is  probable  that  the  cooling  is  as  rapid  in  the  type  of  car  mentioned  as 
in  the  average  cold  storage  room  where  there  is  no  forced  circulation 
of  air. 

ENDIVE 

Endive  (Cichoriiwi  Endivia  Linn.)  belongs  to  the  Compositae  or  sun- 
flower family  and  is  probably  of  East  Indian  origin.  It  was  used  as 
food  by  the  Egyptians  at  a  very  early  period,  being  referred  to  by  Pliny, 
who  states  that  it  was  eaten  as  a  salad  and  potherb  in  his  day.  As  now 
grown  endive  is  eaten  mainly  as  salad,  taking  the  place  of  lettuce.  It  is 
grown  mainly  by  market  gardeners  near  large  cities,  where  it  is  consumed 
largely  by  the  foreign  population. 

Culture. — The  general  methods  of  culture  of  endive  are  practically 
the  same  as  for  lettuce.  It  is  grown  mainly  for  fall  and  early  winter 
markets,  although  it  can  be  produced  as  an  early  summer  crop  by  starting 
the  plants  under  glass,  or  even  by  sowing  the  seed  in  the  open  very  earlj^ 
in  the  spring.  For  the  fall  crop  in  the  North  the  seed  is  sown  in  July 
or  August.  In  the  South  it  can  be  grown  as  a  winter  crop.  If  planted 
in  the  spring  in  the  North  the  seed  may  be  sown  as  soon  as  hard  freezes 
are  over  since  the  crop  will  withstand  hght  freezes.  The  plants  make  the 
most  satisfactory  growth  during  cool  weather. 

The  distance  of  planting  is  about  the  same  as  for  lettuce,  the  rows 
being  15  to  18  inches  apart  for  hand  cultivation,  with  the  plants  thinned 
to  stand  6  to  10  inches  apart  in  the  row. 

Any  soil  suitable  to  lettuce  culture  is  satisfactory  for  endive.  Rapid 
growth  is  important,  as  for  all  other  salad  crops,  in  order  to  procure 


202  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

tender,  crisp  leaves.  The  same  soil  treatment  recommended  for  lettuce 
is  suggested  for  this  crop. 

Blanching. — When  the  crop  is  grown  for  salad  the  leaves  should 
be  thoroughly  blanched  to  reduce  the  bitterness  and  to  render  them 
more  tender.  Blanching  also  improves  the  appearance  of  the  leaves 
when  they  are  to  be  used  for  garnishing. 

Blanching  requires  2  to  3  weeks,  or  even  longer  in  cool  weather.  Any 
method  which  excludes  the  light  from  the  central  leaves  and  keeps  them 
dry  is  satisfactory.  The  most  common  method  is  to  gather  all  of  the 
leaves  into  a  bunch  and  tie  them  near  the  top.  If  rains  or  cloudy  weather 
follow  the  tying  it  is  important  to  examine  the  crowns  frequently  to 
see  that  they  are  not  decaying.  After  the  inner  leaves  are  blanched 
they  should  be  harvested  quickly  to  prevent  decay.  Covering  the  plants 
with  boards,  hay,  straw  or  other  material  is  sometimes  practiced.  When 
grown  in  the  greenhouse  great  care  must  be  taken  to  keep  the  house 
cool  and  the  atmosphere  relatively  dry  during  blanching.  Paper  covered 
frames  have  been  recommended  for  blanching  endive  by  S.  N.  Green 
(Mo.  Bull.  32,  Ohio  Exp.  Sta.).  These  frames  exclude  the  light  and 
allow  a  fair  circulation  of  air. 

Varieties. — There  are  two  types  of  endive,  the  curled  or  f ringed- 
leaved  and  the  broad-leaved  varieties.  The  former  is  more  ornamental 
and  much  more  largely  grown  than  the  latter  in  the  United  States.  The 
most  popular  varieties  of  the  curled  type  are  Giant  Fringed,  Green 
Curled  Winter  and  White  Curled.  Broad-leaved  Batavian  is  the  best 
known  of  the  broad-leaved  type  and  this  is  used  mainly  in  stews  and  soups 
and  as  a  potherb. 

CHICORY 

Chicory  (Cichorium  intybus  Linn.)  also  known  as  French  endive, 
Witloof,  Witloof  chicory  and  succory,  is  probably  a  native  of  Europe 
and  Asia.  It  has  been  in  use  as  a  salad  plant  from  time  immemorial, 
but  was  probably  not  cultivated  by  the  Ancients.  It  was  not  mentioned 
in  the  descriptive  lists  of  vegetables  until  the  thirteenth  century. 

At  the  present  time  chicory  is  grown  mainly  for  its  leaves  used  in 
salad  and  for  its  root  as  an  adulterant  for  coffee.  In  Europe  the  green 
leaves  are  used  as  potherbs  to  some  extent. 

Culture. — When  grown  for  salad  the  seed  is  usually  planted  in  spring 
or  early  summer  in  rows  15  to  18  inches  apart  and  the  young  plants 
thinned  to  4  or  5  inches.  Too  early  planting  may  result  in  development 
of  the  flower  stalk  and  a  root  of  no  value  for  forcing.  Any  soil  suitable 
for  beets,  carrots  and  parsnips  is  satisfactory  for  chicory.  The  cultiva- 
tion and  cai-(^  throughout  the  growing  season  is  the  same  as  for  parsnips. 
On  the  approach  of  cold  weather  the  roots  are  lifted,  or  plowed  out  and 


SALAD  CROPS  203 

the  tops  cut  off  about  2  inches  above  the  crown.  The  roots  are  then 
stored  in  a  cool  place  where  they  will  remain  until  needed. 

Forcing. — When  chicory  is  used  as  a  food  in  the  United  States  it  is 
grown  largely  as  a  forced  crop,  and  a  pure  forcing  strain  should  be 
selected.  The  crop  may  be  forced  under  greenhouse  benches,  in  cellars 
or  out  of  doors.  A  temperature  of  50  to  60  degrees  is  usually  maintained. 
At  a  higher  temperature  the  heads  are  not  so  solid  and  there  is  a  tendency 
to  shoot  up  too  rapidly. 

The  roots  usuall}^  vary  considerably  in  size  and  should,  therefore,  be 
graded  before  they  are  planted.  It  is  desirable  to  make  three  or  four 
grades  based  on  length  and  size.  Roots  of  each  grade  should  be  cut  to 
a  uniform  length  so  that  all  of  the  crowns  will  be  covered  to  the  same 
depth.  The  size  of  the  head  corresponds  to  the  size  of  the  root  used. 
Very  large  roots  produce  large  heads  many  of  which  are  often  made  up 
of  small  divisions.  Some  good,  solid  heads  develop  from  the  very  large 
roots,  but  they  are  generally  too  large  for  the  best  market  use.  Medium 
to  large  roots  produce  heads  of  the  best  market  size  while  small  roots  yield 
too  many  small  straight  heads.  A  head  4  to  5  inches  long  and  weighing 
2  to  3  ounces  is  the  most  desirable. 

In  preparing  the  roots  for  forcing  the  slender  tips  are  cut  off.  They 
may  be  taken  from  storage  for  forcing  at  any  time  from  late  fall  until 
spring,  and  for  a  succession  of  heads,  new  plantings  should  be  made  every 
two  or  three  weeks.  The  roots  are  set  in  a  trench  in  a  sloping  direction 
with  the  crown  about  even  with,  or  below,  the  surface.  They  are  placed 
close  together  and  the  crowns  are  covered  with  fine  soil,  sand  or  sawdust 
to  the  depth  of  6  to  8  inches.  This  covering  excludes  the  light  and 
prevents  the  leaves,  forming  the  head,  from  spreading,  making  the 
head  solid  and  compact.  Before  covering  the  roots  and  the  soil  below 
should  be  watered.  One  or  two  later  waterings  may  be  necessary  but 
the  soil  above  the  crowns  should  not  be  soaked.  With  the  proper 
temperature  three  to  four  weeks  are  usually  required  to  develop  good 
heads,  but  at  high  temperatures  the  heads  will  push  through  the 
covering  earlier. 

Good  chicory  may  be  grown  in  outdoor  trenches.  These  trenches 
should  be  at  least  18  inches  deep  and  12  to  18  inches  wide.  The  roots 
are  set  and  covered  as  described  above.  Over  the  covering  of  sand,  soil 
or  sawdust  is  placed  fresh  horse  manure  to  the  depth  of  about  2  feet  and 
extending  about  1}^  feet  on  either  side  of  the  trench.  The  manure 
furnishes  the  heat  and  protects  the  heads  against  freezing. 

Chicory  is  harvested  by  cutting  off  the  head  at  the  base.  The  outside 
leaves  are  usually  pulled  off  and  the  heads  are  packed  in  baskets.  The 
French  and  Belgian  product  is  shipped  in  20-pound  baskets  with  the 
heads  packed  in  layers.  A  smaller  package  is  desirable  and  the  3-pound 
climax  basket  has  been  used  in  this  countrv. 


204  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

PARSLEY 

Parsley  {Petroselinum  hortense)  is  the  most  popular  of  the  garden  herbs 
grown  in  this  country.  The  leaves  are  used  for  flavoring,  for  garnishing 
and  to  some  extent  for  salads.  The  plant  is  a  biennial,  or  short-lived 
perennial  of  the  UmbeUfferae  family  and  is  a  native  of  Europe.  It  has 
been  in  cultivation  for  over  two  thousand  years. 

Culture. — Parsley  seed  is  slow  to  germinate,  and  for  this  reason  it  is 
often  sown  in  the  greenhouse,  hotbed,  or  specially  prepared  bed  in  the 
open.  The  young  plants  are  then  transplanted  where  they  are  to  grow 
to  edible  maturity.  The  plants  are  hardy  and  may  be  set  out  as  early 
as  cabbage.  In  the  North  seed  is  quite  commonly  sown  outdoors  early 
in  the  spring  and  at  intervals  during  the  growing  season.  In  the  South 
the  crop  is  grown  mostly  during  the  winter  and  spring.  When  grown 
commercially  the  rows  are  spaced  about  15  inches  apart  and  the  plants 
given  a  space  of  4  to  8  inches  in  the  row. 

Parsley  is  often  grown  as  a  forcing  crop  in  the  greenhouse,  hotbed, 
or  cold  frame  during  the  winter  and  spring.  In  the  vicinity  of  Norfolk, 
Virginia  acres  of  parsley  are  grown  in  frames  during  the  winter  for  the 
northern  and  eastern  markets.  Near  many  of  the  large  cities  consid- 
erable parsley  is  grown  in  greenhouses  and  hotbeds  for  supplying  the 
local  markets. 

The  cultivation  of  parsley  docs  not  differ  from  that  usually  given  other 
small-growing  plants.  Clean,  shallow  cultivation  throughout  the  season 
is  recommended. 

Varieties. — There  are  two  distinct  forms  of  parsley  grown  for  its 
foliage,  the  plain  leaved  and  the  curled,  the  latter  being  the  most  popular 
in  this  country.  The  best  known  varieties  are  Moss  Curled,  Extra 
Double  Curled,  Fern -leaved  and  Curled  Dwarf.  The  plain -leaved  par- 
sley has  as  good  flavor  as  the  curled,  but  is  not  as  attractive,  hence  is 
little  grown.  In  addition  to  the  forms  grown  for  their  fohage  a  turnip- 
rooted  parsley  is  grown  for  its  edible  root.  This  is  grown  in  the  vicinity 
of  some  of  the  large  cities,  where  it  is  sold  mainly  to  the  foreign  population. 
The  culture  of  turnip-rooted  parsley  is  about  the  same  as  for  carrots. 

Harvesting. — In  harvesting  parsley  only  a  few  leaves  are  picked  from 
a  plant  at  one  time.  By  this  method  the  plant  continues  to  produce 
a  marketable  product  for  several  weeks. 

The  leaves  are  tied  into  small  bunches  for  market,  and,  when  shipped 
long  distances,  the  bunches  are  packed  in  baskets,  hampers,  or  barrels. 
Crushed  ice  placed  in  the  package  as  described  for  spinach  is  an  advan- 
tage in  preventing  heating  and  decaying  in  transit. 

CHERVIL 

Chervil  or  salad  chervil  (Anthriscus  Cerefolium)  is  an  annual  plant 
very  much  like  parsley,  popular  in  Europe,   but  little  grown  in  this 


SALAD  CROPS  205 

country.     It  is  used  for  garnishing  and  flavoring.     The  curled-leaved 
varieties  are  the  most  popular  because  of  their  attractive  appearance. 

The  plant  is  grown  in  very  much  the  same  way  as  parsley  and  the 
leaves  are  ready  in  six  to  eight  weeks  from  seed  sowing.  It  does  not 
thrive  in  hot  weather,  therefore,  should  be  grown  as  a  spring  or  fall  crop. 
It  is  hardy  and  will  withstand  the  winters  in  the  North  if  given  pro- 
tection of  a  cold  frame,  or  even  a  covering  of  straw  or  some  similar 
material.  The  plant  grows  to  the  height  of  18  inches  to  2  feet,  but  the 
foliage  is  usually  harvested  when  young. 

CRESS 

Cress,  Garden  Cress  (Lepidiwn  sativum  Linn.)  is  an  annual  of  the 
Cruciferae  or  mustard  family  and  is  a  native  of  Europe.  It  is  a  cool- 
weather  plant  grown  for  its  root  leaves.  Seeds  are  sown  as  soon  as  the 
ground  can  be  prepared  in  the  spring.  A  cool,  rich  soil  should  be 
chosen  for  rapid  growth  is  essential  to  good  quality.  The  plant  quickly 
runs  to  seed  in  hot  weather.  Cress  seed  is  usually  planted  in  rows  12  to  15 
inches  apart  and  the  plants  thinned  as  needed  for  the  table. 

The  leaves  are  used  in  salads  and  garnishings  and  are  usually  ready 
for  use  in  six  to  eight  weeks  from  the  sowing  of  the  seed.  If  the  leaves 
are  removed  without  injuring  the  crown  the  plant  continues  to  bear. 

Other  species  of  cress,  belonging  to  the  genus  Barbarea,  are  rarely 
grown  in  this  country,  although  they  are  cultivated  to  some  extent  in 
Europe.  The  spring  cress  (B.  verna)  is  a  biennial,  but  when  grown 
under  cultivation  it  is  treated  as  an  annual,  or  as  a  winter  perennial,  the 
seeds  dropping  in  summer  produce  plants  which  send  up  flower  stalks  the 
following  spring. 

WATER  CRESS 

Water  cress  {Roripa  nasturtium-aquaticum)  is  a  perennial,  rooting 
at  the  joints,  thriving  in  very  moist  places  and  in  running  water.  It  is 
readily  propagated  by  seeds  and  by  pieces  of  the  stem.  While  water 
cress  is  commonly  grown  along  streams  or  ditches  fed  by  springs  it  can  be 
grown  in  moist  soil  in  the  garden,  in  hotbeds,  or  in  greenhouses.  When 
grown  in  gardens  or  in  forcing  structures  the  seeds  may  be  started  in  a 
well-prepared  seed  bed  and  the  young  plants  transplanted,  or  pieces  of 
stems  may  be  used  for  starting  a  bed.  As  commercially  grown,  out  of 
doors,  it  is  a  common  practice  to  plant  along  streams  or  ditches,  a  stream 
often  being  divided  so  as  to  extend  the  planting  area.  It  is  important 
that  the  water  be  pure  and  clean.  When  once  established  it  will  persist 
indefinitely  if  it  is  not  harvested  too  closely. 

CORN  SALAD 

Corn  salad  or  Fetticus,  sometimes  called  Lams  lettuce  (Valerianella 
olitoria)  is  used  both  as  said  and  potherb,  but  chiefly  the  former.     It  is  a 


206  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

native  of  Europe,  where  it  grows  wild  among  the  corn  (grain),  hence  the 
name  "corn  salad."  It  is  a  hardy  cool-season  crop  which  is  of  easy 
culture  except  during  hot  weather.  For  an  early  crop  in  spring  the  seeds 
are  often  sown  in  the  fall,  in  drills  18  inches  apart  and  the  planting 
covered  with  a  mulch  of  straw  or  other  material.  The  leaves  may  be 
blanched,  but  they  are  usually  eaten  green.  Corn  salad  is  sometimes 
cooked  and  served  like  spinach,  but  more  often  it  is  used  as  a  salad.  It  is 
rather  tasteless  and  is  not  as  popular  as  other  salad  crops. 


CHAPTER  XX 


COLE  CROPS 


Cabbage 

Cauliflower  and  Broccoli 

Brussels  Sprouts 


kohl-rabi 
Chinese  Cabbage 


All  cole  crops  are  hardy  and  thrive  best  in  cool  weather,  being  grown 
in  the  South  mainly  during  the  winter.  The  crops  in  this  group  are 
closely  related,  belonging  to  the  same  genus  (Brassica)  and  most  of  them 
to  the  same  species.  The  cultural  requirements  for  all  the  crops  in  the 
group  are  very  similar  and  many  of  the  same  diseases  and  insects  attack 
them  all.  Kale  and  collards  are  cole  crops  but  for  convenience  they  are 
included  with  other  potherbs  or  greens  (Chapter  XVIII). 

CABBAGE 

Cabbage  is  by  far  the  most  important  member  of  the  genus  Brassica 
grown  in  the  United  States  and,  in  fact,  is  one  of  the  most  important  of  all 
vegetables.  According  to  the  1920  Census  Report  123,994  acres  were 
grown  for  sale  in  the  United  States  in  1919  and  the  value  of  the  crop  was 
$21,848,112.  Ten  states  produced  two-thirds  of  the  total  crop  of  cabbage 
and  one  of  these,  New  York,  produced  nearly  one-fourth  of  the  whole 

Table  XXYII. — Acreage  and  Value  of  the  Cabbage  Crop  in  1919  in  Ten 
IjEading  States 

(Census  Report,  1920) 


State 

Acres 

Value 

30,555       . 
11,955 

7,718 

5,443 

5,422 

4,501 

4,329 

4,297 

4,240 

4,079 

$4,906,249 

Wisconsin 

Pennsylvania 

Virginia 

1,478.781 

1,669,971 

1,238,320 

953,658 

1,139.361 

Texas  . 

724,108 

Michigan 

Ohio 

613,265 
825,707 

New  Jersey 

618,495 

207 


208  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

acreage.  The  acres  grown  and  the  total  vahic  of  the  crop  in  each  of  the 
ten  states  are  shown  in  Table  XXVII. 

History  and  Taxonomy. — Cabbage  is  found  in  the  wild  state  on 
the  chalk  rocks  of  the  sea  coast  of  England,  on  the  coasts  of  Denmark 
and  Northwestern  France,  and  in  various  other  locahties  from  Greece  to 
Great  Britain.  It  has  been  known  from  earliest  antiquity  and  was 
probably  in  general  use  2,000  to  2,500  B.  C.  It  was  held  in  high  esteem 
by  the  ancient  Greeks  and  is  said  to  have  been  worshipped  by  the  Egyp- 
tians. Cabbage  was  introduced  into  European  gardens  in  the  9th  century 
and  into  the  United  States  in  the  early  days  of  colonization. 

Cabbage  belongs  to  the  Cruciferae  or  mustard  family.  It  is  known 
by  the  technical  name  Brassica  oleracea  var  capitata  Linn.  The  wild 
cabbage  plant  is  herbaceous,  usually  perennial,  but  sometimes  biennial. 
The  cultivated  cabbage  is  biennial,  although  grown  as  an  annual  crop. 
There  is  great  variation  among  the  cultivated  types  of  cabbage.  They 
differ  in  size,  shape  and  color  of  the  leaves,  and  in  size,  shape,  color  and 
texture  of  the  head. 

Soil  Preferences. — Cabbage  is  grown  on  all  types  of  soils  from  the 
sands  and  mucks  to  the  heavy  soils.  For  a  very  early  crop  sandy  or 
sandy  loam  soils  are  considered  best,  while  for  a  late  crop,  where  a  large 
yield  is  the  most  important  consideration,  clay  loams  and  silty  soils  are 
preferred.  A  good  muck  soil  is  very  satisfactory  for  late  cabbage.  A 
sandy  soil  is  excellent  in  the  spring,  when  moisture  does  not  become  a 
limiting  factor,  but  in  late  summer  such  a  soil  is  not  at  all  desired.  Early 
crops  are  grown  mostly  on  light  soils  while  the  late  crop  is  grown  on  heavy 
soils,  which  are  most  retentive  of  moisture  and  are  richer. 

Soil  Preparation. — For  early  cabbage  in  the  North  fall  plowing  is 
important  since  it  is  desirable  to  plant  very  early  in  the  spring.  In 
the  South  cabbage  is  planted  in  the  fall  or  winter  depending  upon  the 
locahty  and  chmate,  therefore,  summer  or  fall  plowing  is  essential. 
Fall  plowing  in  the  North  is  especially  desirable  where  sod  land  is  to  be 
used.  The  vegetable  matter  will  then  be  partially  decayed  by  spring 
and  the  soil  in  good  condition  to  receive  the  crop. 

For  a  late  crop  the  preparation  should  be  made  with  the  idea  of  con- 
serving all  the  moisture  possible.  Spring  plowing  is  desirable  in  this  case 
and  the  land  should  be  harrowed  at  intervals  to  keep  down  weeds  and  to 
maintain  a  surface  mulch. 

Manures  and  Fertilizers. — Cabbage  is  a  gross  feeder,  especially 
of  nitrogen  and  potassium.  It  is  considered  a  hard  crop  on  the  soil  and 
there  is  experimental  evidence  to  substantiate  this  belief.  Farmers 
often  report  that  corn  following  cabbage  produces  a  smaller  yield  than 
when  it  follows  corn. 

The  Ohio  Experiment  Station  {Bull  344;  374-384)  gives  results  of 
fertilizer  experiments  on  cabbage  grown  in  the  Marietta  section  1915  to 


COLE  CROPS  209 

1919.  The  average  yields  per  acre  for  the  5  years  uiuler  the  various 
tieatments  are  given  in  Table  V,  Chapter  III.  By  comparing  the  yields 
of  plats  3  and  6  it  will  be  seen  that  800  pounds  of  acid  phosphate,  100 
pounds  of  muriate  of  potash  and  300  pounds  of  nitrate  of  soda  per  acre 
produced  practically  the  same  amount  of  cabbage  as  16  tons  of  manure 
and  400  pounds  of  acid  phosphate.  The  latter  treatment  is  much  more 
expensive  than  the  former  due  to  the  cost  of  manure  and  the  labor  of 
hauling  and  applying. 

Results  of  experiments  on  a  Miami  silt  loam  soil  at  the  Rhode  Island 
Experiment  Station  (66)  are  given  in  Table  III,  Chapter  III.  A  study 
of  the  table  shows  that  16  tons  of  manm-e  supplemented  with  chemical 
fertilizers  produced  larger  yields  than  32  tons  of  manure  alone.  Cover 
crops  and  chemical  fertilizers  also  produced  larger  yields  than  32  tons 
of  manure. 

On  most  market  garden  and  truck  soils  a  larger  amount  of  nitrogen 
would  be  desirable.  Many  market  gardeners  and  truck  growers  use 
a  ton  or  more  of  high-grade  fertihzer  per  acre  on  cabbage.  A  good 
formula  on  sandy  loam  soils  is  5-10-5  and  this  may  be  applied  at  the 
rate  of  one  ton  per  area  where  manure  is  not  used.  If  manure  is  used  in 
large  quantities,  phosphorus  is  the  main  element  to  be  supplied  by  com- 
mercial fertilizers,  although  some  readily  available  nitrogen  is  desirable 
to  give  the  plants  a  quick  start  in  the  spring. 

For  late  cabbage,  grown  on  heavy  soils  in  rotation  with  general 
farm  crops,  especially  when  manure  is  used  in  the  rotation,  an  applica- 
tion of  500  to  750  pounds  of  acid  phosphate  gives  good  results.  Many 
growers  apply  10  to  20  tons  of  manure  and  750  pounds  of  acid  phosphate 
to  the  acre  for  late  cabbage.  Where  manure  is  not  used  on  cabbage, 
or  in  the  rotation,  1,000  to  1,200  pounds  of  a  4-12-4  mixture  would 
ordinarily  be  profitable. 

Cabbage  requires  a  large  amount  of  moisture,  therefore  the  late  crop, 
which  is  produced  during  the  dry  portion  of  the  season,  requires  a  soil 
containing  considerable  humus.  If  manure  is  not  available  to  supply 
humus  some  green-manure  crop  should  be  turned  under.  This  is  also 
important  for  the  early  crop  on  the  sandy  and  sandy  loam  soils. 

On  a  good  type  of  muck  soil  an  application  of  200  to  400  pounds  of 
muriate  or  sulphate  of  potash  alone  produces  large  yields  of  late  cabbage. 
Results  of  experiments  conducted  at  North  Liberty,  Indiana,  by  the  U.  S. 
Department  of  Agriculture  and  the  Indiana  Experiment  Station  1915- 
1917  show  the  importance  of  potash. 

These  results  as  summarized  by  Beattie  (10)  are  given  in  Table 
XXVIII. 

The  results  are  not  entirely  consistent  but  they  show  the  importance 
of  potash. 


Yields  lb 

i.  per  acre 

21; 

.531 

22 

.711 

20, 

,939 

35, 

,281 

42,330 

32. 

,585 

37, 

,770 

24. 

,842 

37,377 


43,846 


210  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

Table  XXVIII. — Average  Yield  of  Cabbage  (Flat  Dutch  Variety)  in 
Fertilizer  Experiment  at  North  Liberty,  Indiana,  1915-1917 

Fertilizer  treatment,  lb.  i)er  acre 


None 

Nitrate  of  soda  2001 

Tankage  200  J   

Acid  phosphate  (14  per  cent)  457. 

Muriate  of  potash  200 

Muriate  of  potash  400 

Sulphate  of  potash  200 

Manure  30,000 

Limestone  2,000 

Muriate  of  potash  200 

Acid  phosphate  (14  per  cent)  457 

Muriate  of  potash  400  1  |  ^9  ^i- j 

Acid  phosphate  ( 14  per  cent)  457  J 

Nitrate  of  soda  200       | 

Tankage  200  j  38, 792 

Muriate  of  potash  400] 
Muriate  of  potash  400  i 
Manure  30.000  J 

Limestone  2,000l   I  41,772 

Manure  30,000   J 


Growing  Plants. — There  are  several  distinct  methods  of  growing 
cabbage  plants  for  the  early  crop:  (1)  Sowing  seed  outside  in  the  fall  in 
the  South;  (2)  sowing  seed  in  the  cold  frame  late  in  the  fall  or  early  winter 
and  transplanting  to  the  field  direct  from  the  seed  bed;  (3)  sowing  seed  in 
a  hotbed  early  in  the  spring  and  transplanting  direct  from  the  seed  bed; 
(4)  sowing  seed  in  the  greenhouse  or  hotbed  and  transplanting  the  plants 
at  least  once  before  setting  them  in  the  open. 

In  many  sections  of  the  South,  especially  along  the  Atlantic  Coast 
and  in  the  southern  tier  of  states,  the  most  common  practice  is  to  sow 
cabbage  seed  in  an  open  bed  in  the  fall  and  to  set  the  plants  in  the  field 
after  6  to  10  weeks.  The  seed  is  sown  with  a  seed  drill.  October  is 
usually  the  month  for  seed  sowing  where  this  method  is  followed  and  the 
plants  are  commonly  set  out  in  December.  In  the  cooler  sections  of  the 
South,  and  in  regions  where  there  are  great  variations  in  temperature, 
seed  is  often  sown  in  cold  frames  in  late  fall  and  early  winter  and  the 
plants  set  out  in  February. 

Sowing  seed  in  the  hotbed  in  March  and  setting  the  plants  direct  to 
the  field  without  transplanting  is  practiced  to  some  extent  in  the  North, 
but  this  method  is  not  satisfactory  where  carliness  is  of  prime  considera- 
tion.    Plants  grown  in  this  way  are  usually  not  well  hardened,  and  there- 


COLE  CROPS  211 

fore  will  not  withstand  freezing.  Those  that  survive  are  Hkely  to  be 
weak  and  spindling. 

The  most  common  method  for  growing  early  plants  in  the  North  is 
to  sow  the  seed  in  a  greenhouse  or  hotbed  in  January  or  February  and  to 
transplant  the  seedUngs,  spacing  them  1}^  to  2  inches  apart  each  way. 
Some  growers  transplant  cabbage  plants  twice  before  setting  them 
in  the  field,  giving  them  more  space  at  the  second  transplanting.  If 
more  space  could  be  given  at  the  first  transplanting  better  results  would 
be  secured  without  additional  transplanting. 

Cabbage  plants  for  the  late  crop  in  the  North  are  grown  in  the  open. 
The  seed  is  sown  about  5  weeks  before  time  for  planting  in  the  field.  A 
good,  loose  soil  should  be  selected  for  the  seed  bed  and  this  should  be 
thoroughly  prepared.  Heavy  fertilization  of  the  seed  bed  is  not  desirable 
since  a  rich  soil  is  likely  to  produce  too  rapid  growth.  Where  the  cabbage 
maggot  is  present  the  bed  should  be  screened,  or  the  plants  treated  with  a 
solution  of  corrosive  sublimate  2  to  4  times  while  still  in  the  seed  bed. 

The  amount  of  seed  required  for  an  acre  of  land  depends  upon  the 
viability  of  the  seed,  the  care  taken  in  preparing  the  seed  bed  and  the 
method  of  growing  plants.  If  the  seed  bed  is  well  prepared  and  given 
good  care,  more  plants  will  be  available  from  a  given  amount  of  seed 
than  if  the  soil  is  not  well  prepared  and  poor  care  is  given.  A  pound  of 
seed  of  high  viability  will  furnish  ample  plants  for  4  acres  of  land,  if  the 
plants  are  grown  in  greenhouses  or  hotbeds  and  the  seedhngs  are  "pricked 
out."  When  seed  is  sown  in  outdoor  beds  and  the  plants  are  transplanted 
direct  to  the  field  it  is  not  safe  to  expect  more  than  enough  plants  for  2 
acres  from  1  pound  of  seed.  Many  of  the  plants  are  thrown  away  because 
they  do  not  develop  properly  due  to  crowding  in  the  seed  bed. 

Planting. — Cabbage  plants,  which  have  been  well  hardened,  will 
withstand  a  temperature  of  10  to  15  degrees  below  freezing  if  not  of 
long  duration.  In  regions  where  the  temperature  seldom  goes  much  below 
32  degrees  F.  it  is  safe  to  set  cabbage  plants  in  the  fall  or  early  winter. 
In  the  North  well-hardened  plants  may  be  set  out  as  early  in  the  spring 
as  the  ground  can  be  prepared  or  as  soon  as  the  danger  of  hard  freezes 
is  over.  Late  cabbage  in  the  North  is  set  out  the  latter  half  of  June  and 
in  July  depending  upon  the  earliness  of  fall  freezes.  About  4  months 
should  be  allowed  late  cabbage  to  mature. 

The  spacing  of  the  plants  depends  largely  upon  the  variety.  Small- 
growing  varieties  hke  Jersey  Wakefield  are  set  12  to  15  inches  apart  in  the 
row  with  the  rows  2  to  3  feet  apart.  Larger  varieties  like  Succession, 
Early  Summer  and  Copenhagen  Market  are  set  18  by  28  to  18  by  36 
inches.  Very  large  cabbages  such  as  Flat  Dutch  requires  more  room  and 
the  plants  are  set  at  least  2  feet  apart  in  the  row,  with  the  rows  3  to  332 
feet  apart.  Myers'  (104)  results  in  Pennsylvania  seem  to  indicate  that 
close    planting    increases    the   total   yield,    but    delays    maturity    and 


212  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

decreases  the  size  of  the  heads  of  Jersey  Wakefield,  Early  Spring  and 
Copenhagen  Market  varieties.  However,  the  results  were  not  entirely 
consistent  and,  therefore,  should  be  considered  as  giving  only  an  indica- 
tion of  what  may  be  expected.  The  best  plan  seems  to  be  to  plant  rather 
close  in  the  row  and  to  allow  a  liberal  space  between  the  rows  for  con- 
venience in  cultivating. 

Cabbage  plants  are  set  by  hand  and  by  means  of  transplanting 
machines.  By  the  hand  method  the  opening  for  the  plant  may  be  made 
by  use  of  a  dibble,  trowel,  or  by  means  of  a  small  plow.  When  the  plow 
is  used,  the  plants  should  be  set  immediately  before  the  soil  dries  out. 
Hand  transplanters  are  also  used.  The  hand  transplanter  has  a  water 
attachment  so  that  water  may  be  applied  around  the  roots  as  the  plant  is 
set.  Machine  transplanters  are  used  to  a  large  extent  where  considerable 
areas  are  planted.  These  machines  do  better  work  than  is  usually 
done  by  hand.  They  open  the  furrow,  apply  water  around  the  roots 
and  pack  the  soil  around  the  plant  all  at  one  operation. 

When  setting  out  cabbage  plants  from  the  seed  bed  during  the  summer 
only  the  strong,  stocky  plants  should  be  used  because  many  of  the  weak 
ones  do  not  withstand  the  shock  of  transplanting  and  many  others  make 
a  slow  growth.  In  an  experiment  in  Pennsylvania  (104)  plants  were 
graded  according  to  size  at  the  time  of  planting  to  the  field.  The  experi- 
ment covered  3  years,  2  years  with  Enkhunizen  Glory  and  1  year  with 
Danish  Ballhead.  The  average  of  the  yields  from  the  different  grades 
was  as  follows:  Small  plants  12.7  tons  per  acre,  medium  17.7  tons, 
ungraded  18.5  tons  and  large  21  tons  per  acre. 

Cultivation. — In  the  cultivation  of  cabbage  great  care  must  be 
exercised  to  prevent  destruction  of  the  roots;  therefore  only  very  shallow 
cultivation  should  be  given  after  the  plants  have  attained  considerable 
size.  Many  of  the  roots  of  the  cabbage  plant  grow  within  two  inches  of 
the  surface  of  the  soil  and  these  run  almost  horizontally.  Before  the 
plant  is  half  grown  the  roots  cross  in  the  centers  between  the  rows, 
and  if  deep  cultivation  is  given  more  harm  than  good  may  be  done. 
(See  Chapter  X  "Cultivation.")  Sufficient  cultivation  should  be  given 
to  keep  down  weeds  and  probably  to  maintain  a  soil  mulch  while  the 
plants  are  small.  After  the  plants  are  half  grown  cultivation  is  not  so 
important  unless  weeds  are  troublesome.  Cultivation  should  cease 
when  it  is  impossible  to  perform  the  operation  without  injuring  the 
plants,  since  there  is  evidence  that  little  moisture  is  lost  from  the  soil  by 
evaporation  from  the  surface,  when  the  plants  are  large.  There  is  also 
evidence  that  cultivation  destroys  the  roots  near  the  surface. 

When  the  plants  are  small  cultivation  may  be  done  by  gang  cultivators 
or  by  any  ordinary  shovel  cultivator,  but  when  the  plants  get  larger  only 
light  cultivators  should  be  used.  A  harrow-like  cultivator  or  one  of 
the  Planet  Junior  l5-tooth  type,  may  be  used  to  good  advantage  after 


COLE  CROPS  213 

the  plants  are  well  established.  In  fact  if  the  otouiuI  has  been  well 
prepared,  the  light  cultivator  is  best  for  all  cultivation. 

Hand  hoeing  or  hand  weeding  is  usually  necessary  to  keep  the  weeds 
down  between  the  plants  in  the  row.  This  is  especially  important  in  the 
spring  when  weed  growth  is  rapid. 

Types  and  Varieties. — Seedsmen  list  a  large  number  of  varieties  of 
cabbage  but  only  a  few  of  them  are  of  much  importance.  Mj^ers  and 
Gardner  (103)  report  that  in  1915  fifty-four  representative  seedsmen 
listed  243  varieties,  but  of  these  only  35  were  listed  by  more  than  ten 
seedsmen  and  174  varieties  were  listed  by  not  more  than  two  seedsmen. 

The  different  varieties  grown  in  the  United  States  have  been  classified 
in  various  ways.  No  classification  that  has  been  attempted  is  entirely 
satisfactory,  but  the  one  suggested  by  Myers  (106)  is  probably  the  best. 
This  is  similar  to  the  classification  suggested  by  Allen  ("Cabbage,  Cauli- 


FiG.  20. — Three  varieties  of  early  cabbage:  1,  Jersey  Wakefield;  2,  Charleston  Wakefield; 
3,  Copenhagen  Market. 

flower  and  Allied  Vegetables"  page  54),  but  three  groups  are  added  to 
those  mentioned  by  Allen.     Myers  suggests  eight  groups  as  follows: 

1.  The  Wakefield  and  Winningstadt  group. 

2.  The  Copenhagen  Market  group. 

3.  The  Flat  Dutch  or  Drumhead  group. 

4.  The  Savoy  group. 

5.  The  Danish  Ballhead  group. 

6.  The  Alpha  group. 

7.  The  Volga  group. 

8.  The  Red  Cabbage  group. 

The  Wakefield  and  Winningstadt  group  includes  varieties  having 
small  pointed  heads  (Fig.  20).  The  plants  mature  early  and  are  grown 
chiefly  for  the  early  crop.  The  best  known  varieties  of  this  group  are 
Jersey  Wakefield,  Charleston  Wakefield  and  Early  Winningstadt.  Early 
Winningstadt  is  a  good  home  garden  variety  but  is  not  grown  to  any 
great  extent  in  the  United  States,  except  in  southern  California  where  it 
is  an  important  variety. 

The  Copenhagen  Market  group  is  important  largely  because  of  the 
variety  Copenhagen  Market  (No.  3,  Fig.  20),  which  is  the  most  important 


214  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

early,  roundhead  cabbage  grown  in  the  United  States.  It  is  nearly  as 
early  as  the  Jersey  Wakefield  and  the  heads  are  much  larger.  The  head 
is  round  and  compact,  having  few  outer  leaves  and  a  small  core.  The 
leaves  are  small  to  medium  in  size,  light  green  in  color  and  covered  with  a 
heavy  bloom.  The  stem  is  short.  This  is  one  of  the  most  important  early 
varieties  in  the  North  and  is  also  used  for  mid-season  and  early  fall  crops. 
The  Flat  Dutch  group  is  distinguished  from  all  others  by  the  flat 
heads  (Nos.  5  and  6,  Fig.  21.).  The  plant  is  medium  to  large;  the  outer 
leaves  are  large  and  numerous,  curving  inward  and  inclosing  the  head 
loosely.  The  color  is  light  green.  The  heads  are  large,  flat  and  fairly 
solid.  The  leaves  forming  the  head  fold  over  each  other  at  the  center. 
Varieties  in  this  group  differ  considerably  in  the  length  of  time  required  to 
mature. 


Fig.  21. — Three  varieties  of  midseason  cabbage:  1,  Enkhuizen  Glory;  2,  Early  Summer; 

3,  Succession. 

The  Savoy  group  is  characterized  by  foliage  which  is  very  much 
blistered  or  wrinkled.  The  foliage  is  dark  green  and  has  very  little 
bloom.  The  quality  of  this  group  is  considered  superior  to  all  others, 
but  it  is  not  of  much  commercial  importance  although  long-cultivated. 
The  most  important  varieties  are  Savoy,  Drumhead  Savoy  and  Perfec- 
tion Savoy. 

The  Danish  Ballhead  group  contains  the  most  important  varieties  of 
cabbage,  the  best  known  variety  being  the  Danish  Ballhead,  also  known 
as  Hollander,  Danish,  Danish  Roundhead  and  many  other  names.  The 
mature  plant  is  of  medium  size;  the  outer  leaves  are  few  in  number,  curve 
inward  to  some  extent,  light  green  in  color  and  are  covered  with  a  fairly 
heavy  bloom.  The  head  leaves  are  of  fine  texture  and  reach  well  past 
the  center.  The  head  is  of  medium  size  and  very  soHd.  It  is  the  best 
keeping  variety  grown  in  the  United  States  and  is  used  to  a  greater 
extent  than  all  other  varieties  of  late  cabbage. 

The  Alpha  group  contains  the  earliest  varieties.  The  heads  are 
smaller  than  Wakefield,  round  and  very  solid.  The  plants  are  small  and 
may  be  planted  close  together.  The  group  is  of  little  commercial  impor- 
tance, and  no  well-known  varieties  are  included  in  it.  Miniature  Marrow 
and  St.  John  Day  are  perhaps  the  best  known. 


COLE  CROPS  215 

The  Volga  group  is  best  represented  by  the  variety  Volga.  The 
mature  plant  is  large  and  has  few  outer  leaves,  which  curve  outward; 
leaves  large  and  thick;  color  steel-blue.  The  head  is  of  medium  size, 
globular  but  somewhat  flattened;  the  head  leaves  extend  a  short  distance 
past  the  center  thus  giving  it  a  bald  appearance.  The  head  is  solid 
on  top,  but  rather  open  below. 

The  Red  Cabbage  group  is  distinguished  from  all  others  by  its  deep 
purplish-red  color.  Otherwise  the  plants  show  considerable  resemblance 
to  the  Danish  Ballhead  but  the  jaeld  is  usually  smaller.  The  best  known 
red  varieties  are  Rock  Red  or  Mammoth  Rock  Red,  Red  Dutch  and  Red 
Danish  or  Danish  Red.  These  are  probably  different  strains  of  the  same 
variet}'. 

Diseases. — There  are  several  very  serious  diseases  of  cabbage,  the 
most  important  being  club-root,  root-knot  (nematodes),  yellows, 
black-rot  and  black  leg.  A  serious  infection  of  some  of  these  is  suffi- 
cient to  make  cabbage  growing  unprofitable,  and  in  many  instances 
results  in  total  loss  of  the  crop. 

Club-root  {Plasmodiophora  brassicae  Wor.)  is  produced  by  the  inva- 
sion of  a  slime  mold  on  the  roots.  Plants  affected  by  this  disease  show, 
in  the  earlier  stages  of  growth,  a  wilting  of  the  foliage  on  sunny  days,  with 
recovery  toward  evening  or  on  cloudy  days.  The  roots  of  affected  plants 
show  characteristic  swelHngs,  which  often  become  very  large.  The  mass 
of  thickened  malformed  roots  presents  a  clubbed  appearance. 

The  organism  is  a  soil  parasite  which  thrives  best  in  an  acid  soil. 
Correcting  the  acidity  of  the  soil  by  applications  of  lime  is  the  only 
practicable  control  measure  used.  The  lime  should  be  applied  a  few 
months  before  planting  the  cabbage,  preferably  in  the  preceding  fall. 

The  seedlings  are  very  susceptible  to  the  disease,  and  caution  should 
be  taken  to  grow  plants  on  uninfected  soil,  or  to  disinfect  the  seed  bed. 
Diseased  plants  should  be  destroyed  by  burning.  A  long  rotation,  in 
which  no  cruciferous  plants  are  grown,  is  of  value  in  controlling  this  disease. 

Root-knot. — This  is  a  disease  caused  by  a  parasitic  eelworm 
{Heterodera  radicicola  (Greef)  Mull.).  The  parasite  penetrates  the  roots 
and  causes  irregular  swellings,  which  are  sometimes  confused  with  club- 
root.  Root-knot,  as  a  rule  is  characterized  by  smaller  swellings  than 
club-root.  More  of  the  feeding  roots  are  affected  and  the  knots  are  located 
nearer  the  tips  of  the  roots.  Root-knot  is  not  serious  in  the  North  but  is 
very  destructive  to  nearly  all  kinds  of  crops  in  the  South. 

Crop  rotation  is  the  most  effective  means  of  controUing  this  disease, 
but  in  order  to  starve  out  the  parasite  the  alternating  crops  grown  must 
be  immune  or  resistant  to  root-knot.  A  rotation  of  at  least  three  years 
accompanied  by  clean  cultivation,  should  be  practiced.  Harter  and  Jones 
(63)  state  that  there  are  480  different  species  of  plants  known  to  be 
susceptible  to  root-knot,  including  many  cultivated  plants  and  numerous 


216  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

weeds.  The  following  crops  are  listed  by  them  as  being  immune  or 
highly  resistant  to  the  disease,  and  can  be  used  in  the  rotation;  corn, 
winter  oats,  rye,  timothy,  pearl  millet,  sorghum,  wheat,  crab  grass,  the 
Iron  and  Brabham  cowpeas,  velvet  beans,  peanuts  and  beggar-weed.  The 
following  crops  should  be  avoided  in  the  rotation;  alfalfa,  vetch, 
soybeans  (except  Laredo)  cowpeas  (except  Iron  and  Brabham)  clover, 
tomatoes,  cotton,  okra,  cucumbers,  watermelons,  canteloupes,  celery, 
beans,  sweet  potatoes,  tobacco,  potatoes  and  all  crucifers. 

Yellows. — This  disease  is  recognized  in  the  field  by  the  lifeless, 
yellowish-green  color,  which  shows  up  in  two  to  four  weeks  after  trans- 
planting. The  plants  are  stunted  and  often  are  warped  and  curled,  due 
to  the  attack  beng  more  severe  on  one  side  of  the  plant  than  on  the  other. 
The  vascular  bundles  of  the  stem  and  lower  leaves  become  darkened, 
the  color  deepening  as  the  disease  progresses.  Diseased  plants  shed  their 
lower  leaves  while  the  plants  are  still  attempting  to  grow. 

Disinfection  of  the  seed  with  mercuric  chloride  solution  (1:1,000) 
reduces  the  danger  of  carrying  the  disease  to  new  districts,  but 
is  of  no  practicable  value  if  the  crop  is  to  be  planted  on 
infected  soils.  The  germs  persist  indefinitely  in  the  soil  and  therefore, 
ordinary  crop  rotation  does  not  control  the  disease.  Seed-bed  infection 
is  one  of  the  worst  dangers,  hence,  care  should  be  taken  to  plant  the  seed 
in  clean  soil.  The  only  safety  lies  in  planting  cabbage  on  disease-free 
land  or  in  using  yellows-resistant  varieties,  such  as  Volga,  Houser  and 
Wisconsin  Hollander.  The  last  named  is  a  disease-resistant  selection  from 
the  Hollander  variety  developed  by  the  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station. 

Black-rot.— This  is  caused  by  a  bacterium  (Bacterium  campestre 
(Pammel)  Erw.  Sm.)  and  appears  in  the  plant  at  any  stage  of  growth.  The 
yellowing  of  affected  leaves  followed  by  a  blackening  of  the  veins  is  the 
first  indication  of  the  disease.  Later  the  plants  show  a  dwarfing  or  one- 
sided growth  of  the  head,  or,  if  the  disease  is  severe  and  starts  early  in  the 
season  there  may  be  no  head  formed.  The  heads  sometimes  rot  and 
fall  off.  A  cross-section  of  the  stem  of  affected  plants  shows  a  brown  or 
black  ring  corresponding  to  the  woody  tissue.  Often  the  blackening  of 
the  veins  of  the  leaf  can  be  seen  through  the  outer  tissues. 

No  sure  methods  of  controlling  black-rot  are  known,  but  the  observ- 
ance of  certain  precautions  will  prevent  serious  loss.  The  germs  are 
known  to  be  carried  on  the  seeds  therefore  seed  disinfection  with  corro- 
sive sublimate  is  recommended.  Soil  and  manure  for  the  seed  bed  should 
be  free  from  disease.  Crop  rotation  is  of  value  in  controlling  this  disease. 
The  rotation  should  be  one  in  which  no  cultivated  crucifers  or  cruciferous 
weeds  are  allowed  to  grow  for  4  or  5  years.  Live-stock  should  be 
kept  out  of  diseased  cabbage  fields  as  they  may  carry  the  organism  to 
disease-free  fields.  Diseased  plants  should  be  destroyed  and  not  thrown 
on  the  manure  heap. 


COLE  CROPS  217 

Black-leg. — This  disease  is  caused  by  a  fungus  parasite  (Phoma 
Lingam  (Tode)  Desmax).  It  may  invade  almost  any  portion  of  the 
plant  but  the  worst  damage  occurs  when  it  kills  the  stems  of  the  young 
plants  in  the  seed  bed  or  in  the  field.  Infection  often  occurs  on  the  stem 
near  the  ground,  causing  dark  sunken  areas.  The  disease  spreads  from 
these  areas,  gradually  killing  the  base  of  the  stem  and  roots,  so  that  the 
plant  wilts.  The  wilting  of  the  entire  plant  is  characteristic  of  the 
advanced  stages  of  this  disease,  and  the  leaves  adhere  to  the  stem  instead 
of  falling  off  as  in  the  yellows.  In  the  advanced  stage  of  the  black-leg, 
the  dead  areas  are  covered  with  very  small  black  specks,  which  are  the 
fruiting  bodies.  These  live  in  the  soil  on  parts  of  diseased  stems  and 
leaves  and  may  persist  for  two  years  or  more. 

The  control  measures  for  this  disease  are  the  same  as  suggested  for 
black-rot.  However,  Walker  (171)  has  recently  shown  that  treating  the 
seed  with  formaldehyde  solution,  mercuric  chloride  solution,  hot  water 
or  dry  heat  does  not  entirely  destroy  the  fungus  without  materially  reduc- 
ing germination  and  causing  injury  to  the  seedhngs.  In  his  experiments 
the  disease  was  checked  by  seed  treatment,  but  was  not  completely  con- 
trolled even  when  the  treatment  was  carried  beyond  the  point  where  seed 
injury  resulted. 

Insects. — Cabbage  and  closely  related  plants  are  attacked  by  many 
insects  including  both  those  with  chewing  and  those  with  sucking  mouth 
parts.  The  important  chewing  insects  of  cabbage  are  the  cabbage 
maggot,  green  cabbage  worm,  southern  cabbage  butterfly,  cabbage  looper, 
diamond-back  moth,  cross-striped  cabbage  worm,  cabbage  webworm, 
garden  webworm,  purple-backed  cabbage  worm,  and  zebra  caterpillar. 
The  important  sucking  insects  attacking  cabbage  are  cabbage  aphis, 
turnip  aphis  and  harlequin  cabbage  bug. 

Cabbage  Maggot  (Phorhia  hrassicae). — The  cabbage  maggot  is  a 
small  whitish  larva  of  a  black  fly  a  little  smaller  than  the  common  house 
fly.  The  fly  deposits  eggs  just  below  the  surface  of  the  ground  on  or  near 
the  roots  of  cruciferous  plants.  The  eggs  hatch  in  a  few  days  and  the  larvae 
feed  on  the  plants  for  about  three  weeks.  They  first  attack  the  rootlets 
and  then  burrow  into  the  main  root,  causing  the  plant  to  wilt,  and  in  most 
cases,  to  die.  Even  if  the  plant  is  not  killed  outright  its  vitahty  is  often 
so  weakened  that  only  a  small  head,  or  no  head  at  all,  is  formed.  In  the 
North  the  maggots  are  most  destructive  to  early  cabbage  in  the  field  and 
late  cabbage  in  the  seed-bed. 

For  the  control  of  cabbage  maggot  on  early  cabbage  in  the  field  the 
most  effective  remedy  now  known  is  a  solution  of  corrosive  sublimate 
1:1,000,  or  1  ounce  of  the  powder  to  8  to  10  gallons  of  water.  Two  or 
three  applications  are  made,  the  first  one  about  the  time  the  adult  fly 
appears,  which  is  usually  soon  after  the  plants  are  set.  At  each  appli- 
cation about  one-half  cupful  of  the  solution  is  applied  around  each  plant. 


218  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

Other  inothods  of  control  iis(h1  are  tar  paper  discs  and  tar  and  sand  mixture. 
Schermerhorn  and  Nissley  (131)  compared  these  three  methods  of  control 
in  five  counties  in  New  Jersey  and  in  two  tests  on  the  Station  grounds. 
The  treatments  given  were  as  follows: 

1.  Corrosive  sublimate,  1  ounce  of  powder  to  10  gallons  of  water,  two  applica- 
tions of  about  one-half  cupful  around  each  plant.  The  first  application  was  made 
3  or  4  da3^s  after  planting  and  the  second  8  to  10  days  after  the  first. 

2.  Commercial  tar  paper  pads  placed  around  the  plants  within  a  few  hours 
after  setting  in  the  field. 

3.  Tar  and  sand  mixture  made  by  mixing  about  one  bushel  of  sand  and  one 
quart  of  water-gas  tar.  The  mixture  should  be  made  at  least  a  week  previous 
to  its  application  to  prevent  injuring  the  plants.  The  material  was  applied  at 
the  rate  of  about  a  table-spoonful  around  each  plant.  A  second  application  was 
made,  but  this  is  not  usually  necessary. 

The  average  percentage  of  plants  killed  by  maggots  in  the  tests  in  the 
five  counties  and  the  two  tests  at  New  Brunswick  was  1.96  with  corrosive 
sublimate,  5.33  with  tar  paper  pads,  32.73  with  tar  and  sand  and  58.53 
per  cent  where  no  treatment  was  given. 

The  costs  per  acre  including  the  material  and  labor  of  applying  was 
$29.65  per  acre  for  two  applications  of  corrosive  sublimate,  $39  for  tar 
paper  pads,  and  $22.50  for  two  applications  of  tar  and  sand. 

Tar  paper  discs  placed  around  the  plants  before  the  fly  appears  act  as 
a  repellant  and  prevent  the  fly  from  depositing  its  eggs  near  the  plants, 
provided  the  discs  do  not  become  covered  with  soil.  Since  there  is  danger 
of  covering  the  discs  when  cultivating,  and  it  is  impracticable  to  sweep 
the  soil  off,  the  corrosive  sublimate  treatment  appears  to  be  more 
satisfactory.  The  length  of  time  required  to  place  the  discs  around 
the  plants  is  at  least  equal  to  the  time  consumed  in  making  one 
application  of  corrosive  sublimate  solution. 

For  the  late  crop  the  common  method  of  control  is  to  screen  the 
seed  bed  with  cheese  cloth.  This  prevents  the  female  depositing  eggs 
on  or  near  the  roots.  Soaking  the  soil  of  the  seed  bed  with  corrosive 
sublimate  solution  has  also  given  good  results  where  three  or  four  applica- 
tions have  been  made.  This  method  bids  fair  to  replace  the  method  of 
screening  the  bed. 

Green  Cabbage  Worm,  or  Imported  Cabbage  Worm  (Pontia 
rapae). — This  worm  is  the  larvae  of  a  small  white  butterfly.  Its  larva  is 
about  1-inch  long  and  velvet  green  in  color.  It  is  the  most  destructive  of 
the  common  cabbage  insects,  eating  holes  in  the  leaves  and  often  burrow- 
ing into  the  head. 

Spraying  the  plants  with  arsenate  of  lead,  4  pounds  of  paste  or  2 
pounds  of  powder  to  50  gallons  of  water,  with  4  pounds  of  soap  to  make 
the  spray  adhere  to  the  foliage  will  control  this  pest.     The  poison  may 


COLE  CROPS  219 

be  applied  in  the  form  of  a  dust,  using  1  part  arsenate  of  lead  powder 
and  4  parts  of  air-slaked  lime.  It  is  best  to  apply  the  dust  when  the 
dew  is  on  the  plants.  There  is  no  danger  from  poisoning  since  the  cab- 
bage head  grows  from  the  inside. 

Southern  Cabbage  Worm  {Po7itia  protodice). — This  insect  resembles 
the  adult  of  the  green  cabbage  worm  in  the  adult  stage,  but  is  pure  white 
in  color.  The  larva  is  strongly  colored,  purplish  and  yellow  striped,  with 
black  spots.  The  injury  done  by  this  insect  is  identical  with  that  of  the 
green  cabbage  worm,  therefore  the  same  control  measures  are  used. 

Cabbage  Looper  {Auiographa  hrassica),  the  larva  of  a  moth,  resem- 
bhng  the  cut-worm  moth,  feeds  on  the  foliage  of  cabbage  and  related 
plants.  This  worm  can  be  distinguished  from  the  others  by  its  pecuUar 
looping  or  doubling  up  as  it  crawls.  It  is  more  active  than  the  other 
worms  previously  considered,  and  is,  therefore,  more  difficult  to  control. 
In  addition  to  attacking  all  cole  crops  it  sometimes  injures  peas,  beets, 
celery  and  lettuce.  The  same  control  measures  are  used  for  the  cabbage 
looper  as  for  the  green  cabbage  worm. 

Other  Cabbage  Worms,  including  the  diamond-back  moth,  cross- 
striped  cabbage  worm,  cabbage  webworm,  purple-backed  cabbage  worm 
and  zebra  caterpillar,  injure  the  crop  in  much  the  same  way  as  those 
already  discussed  and  the  same  control  measures  are  applied.  The  cross- 
striped  cabbage  worm  bores  into  the  head  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
green  cabbage  worm. 

Cabbage  Aphis  {Aphis  brassicae). — This  is  one  of  the  species  of  insects 
commonly  called  plant  lice.  These  insects  are  more  injurious  during 
the  latter  part  of  the  season  than  earlier.  The  cabbage  aphis  is  covered 
with  a  coat  of  fine  waxy  powder,  very  much  like  the  bloom  on  cabbage 
leaves.  This  covering  protects  the  insects  from  spray  material  since  the 
liquid  runs  off  of  their  waxy  surface.  Spraying  with  nicotine  sulphate 
solution,  to  which  soap  has  been  added  as  a  sticker,  has  been  the  treat- 
ment recommended  during  the  past  few  years.  Recent  experiments  have 
shown  that  dusting  with  nicotine  preparations  gives  good  results  in 
the  control  of  cabbage  aphis.  Parrot  (113)  reporting  the  results  of  experi- 
ments in  New  York  has  the  following  to  say  regarding  dusting  for  the 
control  of  cabbage  aphis: 

From  the  standpoint  of  economy  and  effectiveness,  the  most  satisfactory 
treatment  was  a  lime  preparation  (calcium  hydrate)  containing  2  per  cent  nico- 
tine, applications  being  made  at  the  rate  of  20  pounds  per  acre  with  a  "hand 
bellows  duster."  With  power  dusting  machinery  from  35  to  40  pounds  of 
material  were  required  to  secure  effective  control.  Considering  the  results  as  a 
whole,  dusting  appears  to  be  a  very  promising  system  of  treatment  for  controlling 
the  cabbage  aphis .... 

For  control  of  cabbage  aphis  and  cabbage  worms  we  prefer,  for  the  present, 
the  formula  which  provides  5  pounds  nicotine  sulfate,  15  pounds  powdered  lead 


220  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

arsenate  or  calcium  arsenate  and  80  pounds  of  hj'drated  lime.  If  the  cater- 
pillars are  not  very  numerous,  it  is  believed  that  the  arsenical  maj-  safelj^  be 
reduced  to  10  pounds. 

Turnip  Aphis  (Aphis  pseudobrassicae),  is  closel}^  related  and  similar 
in  appearance  to  the  cabbage  aphis  The  character  of  damage,  life 
history  and  means  of  control  are  the  same  as  for  the  cabbage  aphis. 

Harlequin  Cabbage  Bug  {Murgantia  histrionica)  is  a  true  bug  about 
%  of  an  inch  long,  mottled  red,  black  or  yellow.  Both  the  adult  and 
the  young  suck  the  juices  and  inject  a  poison  into  the  plant.  In  many 
sections  of  the  South,  this  insect  is  one  of  the  most  important  pests. 
The  young  insects  are  much  more  easily  killed  than  the  adults,  but  both 
young  and  old  are  difficult  to  kill  by  ordinary  sprays.  Spraying  with 
nicotine  sulphate  and  kerosene  emulsion  is  partially  effective  if  applied 
while  the  insects  are  young.  Other  remedies  are  clean  culture,  especially  in 
the  fall,  trap  crops  of  mustard  or  other  crops  in  the  spring,  and  hand  pick- 
ing. All  stumps  and  refuse  of  the  crop  should  be  destroyed  in  the  fall 
so  as  to  reduce  hibernating  shelter  as  much  as  possible.  A  few  piles  of 
rubbish  left  in  the  field  in  the  fall  will  act  as  traps.  After  bugs  have 
collected  the  piles  should  be  burned.  A  trap  crop  of  mustard  will 
attract  the  bugs  and  they  will  collect  on  it.  When  the  trap  crop  becomes 
infested  it  may  be  sprayed  with  kerosene,  or  strong  kerosene  emulsion. 

Harvesting. — Cabbage  which  is  grown  for  the  early  market  is  har- 
vested as  soon  as  it  has  attained  sufficient  size  to  be  placed  upon  the 
market,  since  earliness  is  usually  of  more  importance  than  size.  The 
first  shipments  from  the  South  usually  consist  of  small,  immature  heads, 
but  as  the  season  advances  the  quality  improves  and  the  heads  are  closely 
trimmed.  Midseason  and  late  cabbage  is  not  harvested  until  the  heads 
are  full  size  and  hard. 

In  harvesting  the  heads  are  cut  with  a  large  knife,  or,  in  some  cases 
with  a  hatchet.  The  head  is  grasped  in  one  hand  and  the  plant  is  bent 
over  so  that  the  head  can  be  cut  above  the  outer  leaves.  Quite  commonly 
the  cutter  takes  two  rows  at  a  time,  and  as  he  cuts  the  heads  he  places 
them  on  the  row  to  be  gathered  by  others  or  he  tosses  them  to  a  man  on  a 
wagon  or  into  the  wagon  box.  For  late  cabbage  care  is  taken  to  prevent 
bruising  the  heads  and  for  this  reason  the  cutter  usually  places  them  on 
the  row  to  be  gathered  by  others,  who  toss  them  to  a  man  on  the  wagon. 
They  are  carefully  placed  in  the  wagon  box  and  hauled  to  the  car  or  to 
the  storage  house. 

Grading.^Cabbage  is  seldom  carefully  graded,  the  common  practice 
being  to  include  in  one  grade  all  marketable  heads.  However,  grading 
would  greatly  facilitate  orderly  marketing  and  undoubtedly  increase  the 
demand.  The  United  States  Bureau  of  Markets  proposes  two  grades, 
U.  S.  No.  1  and  IT.  S.  No.  2,  with  specifications  as  follows: 


COLE  CROPS 


221 


U.  S.  No.  1  shall  consist  of  heads  of  cabbage  which  are  of  one  type,  fairly 
firm  and  well  trimmed;  which  are  not  soft,  withered,  puffy  or  burst;  which  are 
free  from  soft  rot,  seed  stems  and  from  damage  caused  by  discoloration,  freezing, 
disease,  insects  or  mechanical  or  other  means. 

In  order  to  allow  for  variations  incident  to  proper  grading  and  handling,  not 
more  than  10  per  cent,  by  weight,  of  any  lot  may  be  below  the  requirements  of 
this  grade. 

Any  lot  of  cabbage  consisting  of  heads  of  more  than  one  type  but  which  meet 
all  other  requirements  of  U.  S.  No.  1  may  be  designated  U.  S.  No.  1  Mixed. 

U.  S.  No.  2  shall  consist  of  heads  of  cabbage  which  do  not  meet  the 
requirements  of  the  foregoing  grade. 

In  addition  to  the  statement  of  grade,  any  lot  may  be  classified  as  Small, 
Medium,  Large,  Small  to  Medium,  or  Medium  to  Large,  if  75  per  cent,  by  weight, 
of  the  heads  conform  to  the  following  requirements  for  such  sizes : 


Small 

Medium 

Large 

Pointed 

Other  tvpes                                 

Under  2  lb. 
Under  4  lb. 

2  to  4  lb.  inclusive 
4  to  6  lb.  inclusive 

Over  4  lb. 
Over  6  lb. 

Packing. — Cabbage  grown  for  the  local  market  is  seldom  packed 
but  is  loaded  without  containers  into  the  wagon  or  truck.  When  grown 
as  a  truck  crop,  the  heads  are  packed  into  boxes,  crates  or  barrels.  There 
are  many  types  of  cabbage  crates  in  use,  Downing  (38)  listing  twenty 
in  common  use.  These  vary  in  capacity  from  4,224  cubic  inches  to  13,- 
824  cubic  inches.  Downing  suggests  that  four  types  as  given  in  Table 
XXIX  would  meet  the  needs: 

Table  XXIX. — Four  Types  of  Cabbage  Crates  Suggested  by  Downing 


Type 


Inside 

dimensions, 

in. 


Length  of 
slat, 
in. 


Capacity, 
cu.  in. 


Atlantic  Coast  type 

Mississippi  Valley  type 

Colorado  type 

California  type 


12  X  18  X  33 
16  X  16  X  28 
21  X  22  X  24 
18  X  18  X  23% 


36 
30 
24 

24>^ 


7,128 

7,168 

11,088 

7,695 


Reducing  the  number  of  types  of  crates  to  four  would  make  for 
economy  in  manufacture  and  would  eliminate  a  great  deal  of  confusion 
which  now  prevails. 

The  veneer  barrel  with  a  burlap  cover  is  used  to  a  large  extent  in  the 
Norfolk-Portsmouth  region  of  Virginia,  although  the  crate  is  also\ised. 


222  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

Cabbage  grown  for  the  kraut  factory  and  for  the  winter  market  is  usually 
loaded  into  cars  without  containers.  In  mild  weather  the  heads  are 
loaded  into  cattle  cars  and  box  cars,  while  in  cold  weather  refrigerator 
cars  are  used. 

Storing. — A  large  part  of  the  late  crop  of  cabbage  grown  in  the  North 
is  stored  for  winter  use.  Outdoor  storage  is  used  for  cabbage  grown  for 
home  use  and  to  some  extent  for  the  market  crop,  but  a  large  part  of  the 
commercial  crop  is  stored  in  special  storage  houses. 

The  essentials  of  success  for  keeping  cabbage  in  storage  arc:  (1)  A 
good  storage  variety,  (2)  freedom  from  disease,  and  injury  of  any  kind, 
(3)  a  relatively  uniform  temperature  near  the  freezing  point  and  (4) 
moderate  degree  of  humidit\%  enough  to  prevent  wilting  but  not  so  moist 
as  to  cause  condensation. 

A  good  storage  variety  of  cabbage  is  one  with  comjiact,  hard  heads 
such  as  the  Danish  Ballhead. 

Heads  that  are  diseased  when  harvested  will  not  keep  as  well  in 
storage  as  those  that  are  free  from  disease.  Even  if  the  particular 
disease  present  does  not  continue  to  develop  in  storage  the  diseased 
areas  give  a  good  opening  for  some  of  the  storage  rots.  For  the  same 
reason  mechanical  injury  caused  by  rough  handling  is  likely  to  increase 
loss  and  shorten  the  storage  period. 

The  lower  the  temperature  the  longer  cabbage  will  keep,  provided 
the  heads  do  not  actually  freeze.  In  fact,  slight  freezing  does  not  cause 
serious  injury.  Cabbage  will  not  freeze  in  a  room  where  the  air  tempera- 
ture is  32  degrees  F.,  therefore  it  is  safe  to  maintain  that  temperature. 

Moderate  humidity  in  the  storage  house  is  important  since  the 
common  storage  rots  develop  rapidly  in  a  very  moist  atmosphere,  and 
wilting  occurs  under  very  dry  conditions.  In  many  storage  houses  the 
greatest  problem  is  to  control  the  humidit3^  In  some  houses  a  drying 
agent  such  as  calcium  chloride  is  used  to  take  up  the  moisture. 

Outdoor  storage  by  various  methods  is  employed  for  keeping  cabbage 
for  home  use,  and  for  market  for  relatively  short  periods.  The  heads 
are  sometimes  cut  from  the  stalks  and  stored  in  conical  pits  in  much 
the  same  manner  as  root  crops.  Another  common  method  is  to  pull 
the  plants  roots  and  all  and  place  them  in  a  pit  with  their  heads  down. 
In  Maryland  and  Virginia  a  common  method  used  is  to  pull  the  plants 
and  set  them  side  by  side  with  the  roots  down  in  a  shallow  trench,  the 
length  of  which  corresponds  to  the  width  of  the  bed.  The  bed  may  be 
any  width  up  to  8  or  10  feet  and  as  long  as  necessary  to  hold  the  number  of 
cabbages  to  be  stored.  After  the  first  trench  is  filled  with  cabbage  a 
furrow  is  thrown  against  the  roots  and  stalks  and  the  dirt  packed  around 
them  nearly  up  to  the  heads.  A  second  row  is  set  in  the  bottom  of  the 
second  furrow  or  trench  and  tlie  operation  repeated  until  all  of  the  plants 
are  stored.     Around  th(>  bed  a  frame  of  i-aiis,  boai'ds  or  poles  is  erected 


COLE  CROPS 


223 


about  2  feet  high.  The  outside  is  banked  with  earth  and  the  top  is  covered 
with  straw,  hay  or  corn  stover  placed  on  poles  laid  across  the  bed.  Provi- 
sion should  be  made  for  getting  into  the  bed  to  remove  the  cabbage 
as  needed.  The  heads  are  cut  off  and  the  roots  left  in  position.  In  the 
spring  the  stalks  produce  sprouts  which  are  prized  as  greens. 

It  is  impossible  completely  to  control  the  temperature  and  humidity 
in  any  type  of  outdoor  storage  and  in  addition  to  this  it  is  very  incon- 
venient to  remove  the  cabbage  when  wanted.  For  these  reasons  most 
commercial  cabbage  is  stored  in  specially  constructed  warehouses.     These 


Fig.  22. — Interior  of  a  cabbage  storage  house,  showing  driveway  through  center  and 
heads  of  cabbage  placed  on  slatted  shelves  on  both  sides  of  the  driveway.  (Courtesy, 
U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture) . 

houses  are  built  above  ground  and  are  usually  low.  The  house  must  be 
well  built  to  prevent  rapid  changes  of  temperature  on  the  inside. 

The  walls  of  the  house,  if  of  brick,  have  two  tiers  with  an  air  space 
between,  and  when  made  of  wood  three  layers  of  boards  and  two  or 
more  layers  of  heavy  paper.  Two  air  spaces  4  to  6  inches  wide  are  left 
in  the  walls.  The  ceihng,  or  roof  is  quite  well  insulated,  there  being 
usually  two  layers  of  boards  and  two  layers  of  heavy  paper  with  an  air 
space  between  the  outer  and  inner  layers. 

Ventilation  is  provided  by  means  of  openings  through  the  walls 
near  the  ground  and  ventilators  through  the  roof.  In  a  wood-frame 
house,  35  by  77  by  25  feet,  at  Apulia,  N.  Y.  there  are  8  openings  1  by  1  foot 
near  the  floor  and  8  windows  2  by  3  feet  near  the  top  of  the  walls.  Seven 
ventilators  I  foot  in  diameter  extend  through  the  roof.     There  are  two 


224  VEGETABLE  CHOI'S 

large  double  doors,  one  at  each  end  of  the  house.  All  openings  arc  made 
in  such  a  way  that  they  can  be  made  nearly  air  tight. 

Large  storage  houses  usually  have  passage  ways  through  the  center 
sufficiently  wide  to  admit  a  wagon  or  truck  for  convenience  in  loading 
and  unloading.  The  heads  of  cabbage  are  placed  in  narrow  bins  or  on 
shelves  as  shown  in  Fig.  22.  Where  bins  are  used  they  should  be  narrow, 
preferably  not  over  4  feet,  and  the  depth  should  not  exceed  6  or  7 
feet.  The  length  from  front  to  back  may  be  18  to  20  feet.  In  some 
houses  bins  are  placed  one  above  the  other  and  this  is  satisfactory  if  pro- 
vision is  made  to  take  care  of  drip  from  the  upper  bins.  Shelves  are 
better  than  bins  but  they  are  more  expensive,  and  take  more  space. 

The  shelves  ma}^  be  made  for  one,  two  or  more  layers  of  heads.  With 
either  bins  or  shelves  there  should  be  air  spaces  between  them  and  the 
walls  of  the  house,  also  under  them  and  between  the  rows  of  bins  or 
shelves.  Bins  are  usually  made  by  nailing  slats  to  both  sides  of  2  by 
4-inch  uprights  so  that  there  is  a  4-inch  air  space  between  bins.  The 
slats  are  placed  at  least  1  inch  apart.  The  floor  of  the  bins  should 
be  raised  at  least  4  inches  from  the  floor  of  the  house  and  the  boards 
or  slats  should  be  separated  so  as  to  allow  air  to  circulate  up  through 
the  heads  of  cabbage. 

CAULIFLOWER 

Cauliflower  is  grown  for  its  white  tender  heads  formed  by 
the  shortened  flower-parts.  The  crop  thrives  best  in  a  cool,  moist 
climate  and  is  grown  in  a  large  way  in  relatively  few  localities  such  as 
on  Long  Island;  in  Erie  County,  New  York;  and  in  California.  In 
California  it  is  grown  in  winter  and  on  Long  Island  and  in  other  sections 
of  the  North  mainly  in  late  summer  and  fall.  Cauliflower  is  much  more 
particular  as  to  climate  than  cabbage.  It  is  not  as  hardy  and  will  not 
stand  as  much  heat.  During  very  hot  weather  cauliflower  heads  will 
not  develop.  In  most  regions  it  is  grown  in  spring  and  early  summer; 
or  in  the  fall. 

The  value  of  cauliflower  grown  for  sale  in  the  United  States  in  1919 
was  $1,328,415,  and  this  was  produced  on  6,513  acres.  Two  states, 
California  with  3,668  acres  valued  at  $641,161  and  New  York  1,640 
acres  with  a  value  of  $338,040,  produced  over  80  per  cent  of  the  com- 
mercial cauliflower  crop. 

Soil  Preferences. — Where  the  weather  conditions  are  favorable 
cauliflower  can  be  grown  on  almost  any  kind  of  soil.  A  deep  rich  soil 
is  desirable.  In  some  regions,  as  on  Long  Island,  a  sandy  loam  is  preferred. 
Low  well-drained  bottom  lands  are  often  chosen  in  order  that  the  plants 
may  have  a  constant  su))ply  of  moisture. 

Thorough  preparation  of  the  soil  is  very  important  in  growing  cauli- 
flower.    Where  the  crop  is  started  in  the  summer  it  is  often  possible  to 


COLE  CROPS  225 

grow  some  other  vegetal^le  before  time  for  slotting  out  the  caiiHflower 
plants.  If,  however,  this  is  not  done  it  is  desirable  to  plow  early  and  to 
keep  the  land  harrowed  until  the  plants  are  set  out.  This  practice 
conserves  soil  moisture. 

Manures  and  Fertilizers. — On  sandy  loam  soils,  manure  is  very 
important  and  should  be  used  if  available  at  a  reasonable  price.  If 
manure  is  not  available  some  green-manure  crop  should  be  turned  under 
to  supply  humus.  The  cauliflower  crop  is  usually  quite  heavily  fertilized. 
One  ton  or  more  of  high-grade  fertilizer  per  acre  is  commonly  used.  On 
Long  Island  a  common  formula  is  5-7-5  and  the  usual  apphcation  is  at 
least  1  ton  to  the  acre.  One-half  of  the  nitrogen  is  usually  in  the  form  of 
nitrate  of  soda  and  the  remainder  in  fish  scrap  or  tankage.  In  most 
regions  either  a  4-8-4,  5-10-5,  5-7-5,  5-8-8  or  6-8-5  fertilizer  mixture 
is  used.  For  cauliflower  in  Louisiana  Tiebout  (164)  recommends  a 
"liberal  iapplication"  of  well-rotted  stable  manure,  and  a  ton  of  fertilizer 
containing  two  parts  high-grade  acid  phosphate  and  one  part  cotton- 
seed meal,  and  in  addition  occasional  dressings  of  nitrate  of  soda.  The 
fertilizer  alone  woukl  supply  213  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid  (P2O5)  or  the 
equivalent  of  1,333  pounds  of  16  per  cent  acid  phosphate,  certainly 
more  than  the  crop  could  possibly  use.  In  fact,  most  growers  apply 
more  fertilizer  to  cauliflower  than  it  seems  possible  for  the  crop  to  utilize. 
Fifteen  hundred  to  2,000  pounds  of  a  5-7-5  mixture  to  the  acre  would  seem 
ample  on  any  soil  suitable  for  cauliflower  production. 

Seed. — The  importance  of  good  seed  can  scarcely  be  over-emphasized. 
Poor  strains  are  expensive  at  any  price,  for  these  will  not  produce  good 
marketable  heads  under  the  most  favorable  conditions.  Most  of  the  cauli- 
flower seed  used  in  the  United  States  is  imported,  mainly  from  Denmark. 
Some  excellent  strains  have  been  obtained  from  some  of  the  large  dealers  in 
Copenhagen,  Denmark.  Two  of  the  large  cauliflower  associations  in 
New  York  State  are  buying  this  seed  direct  from  Copenhagen  dealers  and 
are  well  satisfied  with  the  strains. 

The  retail  price  of  good  cauliflower  seed  is  very  high,  $2  or  more  an 
ounce,  but  it  is  better  to  give  this  price  than  to  plant  inferior  strains. 
However,  the  best  seed  grown  in  Denmark  can  be  secured  for  much 
less  than  this. 

Growing  Plants. — Cauliflower  plants  are  grown  in  very  much  the 
same  manner  as  cabbage  plants.  In  the  North  seed  for  the  early  crop 
is  sown  in  the  greenhouse  or  hotbed  and  the  plants  transplanted  as  de- 
scribed for  cabbage.  Cauliflower  seed  is  not  sown  quite  as  early  as 
cabbage.  Seed  for  the  general  crop  in  California  is  sown  in  open  beds. 
In  the  eastern  part  of  the  United  States  the  seed  for  the  late  crop  is  sown 
about  the  same  time  or  a  little  later  than  late  cabbage  and  the  plants  are 
handled  in  much  the  same  manner. 


226  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

In  Louisiana,  Tiebout  tried  sowing;  the  seed  in  the  field  where  the 
plants  were  to  mature  and  the  results  were  quite  satisfactory.  His 
method  consists  of  sowing  ten  to  fifteen  seeds  at  the  distance  the  indi- 
vidual plants  are  to  stand  and  covering  them  with  fine  soil  by  means  of  a 
hand  rake.  Rolling  the  seed  bed  with  a  light  roller  drawn  by  hand  was 
found  to  be  quite  helpful  in  assuring  germination.  After  the  seedlings 
appear  above  ground  each  hill  is  given  light  cultivation  with  a  four-tine 
hoe.  Two  or  three  light  applications  of  nitrate  of  soda  around  the  hills 
at  intervals  of  10  days  or  2  weeks  are  recommended.  At  the  time 
cauliflower  plants  are  set  in  the  field  in  Louisiana  (August  and 
September)  it  is  very  hot  and  a  good  stand  of  plants  is  secured  only 
with  great  difficulty  hence  the  method  of  planting  the  seed  direct. 
This  method  is  sometimes  used  in  growing  late  fall  cabbage  in  sections 
of  the  South. 

Planting. — Plants  for  the  early  crop  in  the  North  are  usually  set  out 
as  soon  as  the  danger  of  hard  frosts  is  over.  The  late  crop,  in  regions 
where  severe  freezing  occurs  is  planted  in  time  for  the  heads  to  mature 
before  the  arrival  of  very  cold  weather.  On  Long  Lsland  and  in  the 
Buffalo,  New  York,  region  the  planting  is  done  the  latter  half  of  July  and 
the  first  part  of  August.  In  the  South  and  in  California  cauliflower  is 
grown  as  a  fall  and  winter  crop.  In  California  the  plants  are  set  out  any 
time  from  about  July  1st  until  fall. 

The  distance  for  planting  varies  somewhat,  depending  upon  the 
variety  and  the  richness  of  the  soil.  The  rows  are  usually  about  3  feet 
apart  and  the  plants  are  set  18  to  30  inches  apart  in  the  row.  The 
methods  of  planting  are  the  same  as  for  cabbage. 

Cultivation. — In  the  cultivation  of  cauliflower  the  same  precautions 
should  be  taken  as  suggested  for  cabbage  for  the  root  systems  of  the 
two  crops  are  similar.  Deep  cultivation  is  often  practiced  when  the 
plants  are  small,  but  later  on  shallow  cultivation  is  given.  The  weeds 
should  be  kept  down  at  all  times. 

Diseases  and  Insects. — Cauliflower  has  the  same  diseases  and  insects 
as  calibage  and  the  same  control  measures  are  used  except  the  spraying 
with  arsenioals  after  the  cauliflower  head  is  formed.  It  is  not  safe  to  use 
arsenical  sprays  on  cauliflower  after  the  head  is  formed  because  of  the 
danger  from  poisoning.  While  this  danger  is  rather  remote  it  is  best  to 
take  no  chances. 

Blanching. — A  perfect  head  of  cauliflower  is  pure  white.  To  secure 
this  it  is  necessary  to  exclude  the  sunlight.  While  the  head  is  small 
it  is  protected  by  the  small  inner  leaves  which  curve  over  it,  but  before 
it  is  full  grown  these  leaves  begin  to  lift  and  some  other  means  of  covering 
is  usually  necessary.  The  usual  method  is  to  bring  the  outer  leaves 
up  over  the  head  and  tie  them  with  straw,  raffia,  twine  or  tape  of  some 
kind.     By  using  a  different  kind  of  material  or  a  different  colored  twine 


COLE  CROPS  227 

each  day  for  several  days  it  is  easy  when  cutting  to  select  those  that  have 
been  tied  the  longest.  Sometimes  two  outer  leaves  are  broken  over  to 
protect  the  head  but  this  method  is  not  as  satisfactory  as  tying. 

The  length  of  time  for  the  blanching  of  the  head  depends  upon  the 
weather.  In  the  hotter  part  of  the  season  when  the  plants  are  growing 
rapidly,  two  or  three  days,  will  be  sufficient  while  in  cold  weather  8  to 
12  days  may  be  required.  If  left  too  long  during  hot  weather  the  leaves 
begin  to  rot  and  discolor  the  head.  In  cool  weather  the  heads  begin  to 
push  up  their  flower  stalks  and  assume  a  "riced"  condition  if  left  too 
long  and  this  reduces  their  value.  They  may  even  begin  to  branch  and 
this  renders  them  worthless  except  for  pickles.  Examination  of  the  heads 
should  be  made  every  day  during  hot  weather  and  at  intervals  of  every 
two  or  three  days  in  cool  weather.  It  is  seldom  necessary  to  examine 
more  than  an  occasional  head  of  any  particular  day's  tying,  as  all  the 
heads  will  be  ready  about  the  same  time.  However,  if  the  heads  are 
developing  unevenly  it  is  necessarj^  to  examine  everj^  head. 

Harvesting. — Cauliflower  is  harvested  when  the  heads  attain  the 
proper  size  and  before  they  begin  to  "rice"'  or  become  discolored. 
Medium  sized  heads  are  in  greatest  demand.  In  harvesting  the  plant  is 
cut  off  at  the  ground  with  a  large  sharp  knife.  The  heads  are  seldom 
trimmed  in  the  field,  but  the  plants  are  loaded  on  a  wagon  and  hauled  to  a 
packing  house  or  shed.  Care  should  be  taken  to  prevent  injury  to  the 
heads  in  handling. 

The  heads  are  trimmed  with  a  long  sharp  knife  cutting  squarely 
across  the  leaves,  leaving  J2  inch  to  1  inch  projecting  above  the  head. 
The  stubs  left  protect  the  head  from  injury  by  rubbing  against  the  crate. 
The  stem  of  the  plant  is  cut  off  so  as  to  leave  at  least  one  circle  of  outer 
leaves  and  the  smaller  inner  leaves. 

Grading. — Cauliflower  heads  are  usually  graded  into  at  least  two 
grades  and  sometimes  three.  The  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Markets  recommends 
three  grades:  U.  S.  No.  1,  U.  S.  No.  2  and  U.  S.  No.  3. 

U.  S.  No.  1  shall  consist  of  compact  heads  of  cauliflower  which  are  not  dis- 
colored, ricey,  fuzzy  or  overmature;  which  are  free  from  damage  caused  by  dirt 
or  other  foreign  matter,  bruises,  disease,  insects,  mechanical  or  other  means. 
Attached  leaves  shall  be  fresh  and  green. 

In  order  to  allow  for  variations  incident  to  proper  grading  and  handling, 
not  more  than  10  per  cent,  by  count,  of  any  lot  may  be  below  the  requirements  of 
this  grade  but  not  to  exceed  one-half  of  this  tolerance  shall  be  allowed  for  any  one 
defect, 

U.  S.  No.  2  shall  consist  of  heads  of  cauliflower  which  are  free  from  disease, 
damage  caused  by  overmaturity,  discoloration,  dirt  or  other  foreign  matter, 
bruises,  disease,  insects,  or  mechanical  or  other  means. 

In  order  to  allow  for  variations  incident  to  proper  grading  and  handling,  not 
more  than  10  per  cent,  by  count,  of  any  lot  may  be  below  the  requirements  of  this 


228  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

grade  but  not  to  exceed  one-half  of  this  tolerance  shall  be  allowed  for  any  one 
defect. 

U.  S.  No.  3  shall  consist  of  heads  of  cauliflower  which  do  not  meet  the  require- 
ments of  the  foregoing  grades. 

Packing. — Cauliflower  is  packed  in  various  types  of  boxes,  baskets, 
crates  and  barrels.  The  round-stave  bushel  basket  is  used  in  some 
regions,  but  this  is  not  a  popular  shipping  container.  The  barrel  was 
formerly  used  to  a  very  large  extent  on  Long  Island,  but  has  been  largely 
replaced  by  a  crate  13  by  15  by  23  inches.  In  Erie  County,  New  York 
a  crate  8  by  183^^  by  20)^  inside  measurement  is  used.  When  the  heads 
are  of  uniform  size  11  heads  are  packed  in  this  crate,  3  turned  down  in 
the  center,  and  4  on  each  side.  When  the  heads  are  uneven  in  size 
8  to  13  heads  are  packed  in  the  crate. 

Tiebout  suggests  a  crate  with  heads  7  by  14  by  %  inches  with  ten 
pieces  of  3  or  S^i  by  22  by  }i  inches.  This  crate  holds  only  six  large 
heads.  The  standard  California  crate  is  13  by  18  by  21%  inches  and  the 
pony  crate  is  83^-^  by  18  by  233^^  inches  inside. 

The  heads  are  packed  in  the  crates  in  such  a  way  that  there  is  little 
shifting.  In  Southern  California  the  heads  are  often  packed  two  layers 
in  a  crate  with  the  base  at  the  top  and  bottom  and  the  curds  facing  the 
center,  usually  24  heads  to  the  crate.  When  the  pony  crate  is  used  there 
is  onl}'-  one  layer  of  heads  to  the  crate. 

Storing. — Cauliflower  is  not  ordinarily  stored,  but  good  sound  heads 
can  be  kept  for  a  short  period  in  cold  storage.  Shipments  from  California 
reach  the  eastern  markets  in  good  condition  after  a  period  of  two  or  more 
weeks  in  transit  in  refrigerator  cars.  If  freshly  cut  heads  were  put  in 
cold  storage  it  should  be  possible  to  keep  them  for  several  weeks. 

BROCCOLI 

Broccoli  is  a  large-growing,  long-season,  cauliflower,  little  grown  in 
this  country,  but  in  recent  years  it  has  been  given  some  attention  in 
Oregon.  The  plant  requires  a  full  season  in  which  to  mature  and  is 
inferior  to  the  cauliflower  in  quality  hence  it  has  not  been  regarded  as 
satisfactory  for  commercial  purposes  in  most  sections  of  the  United 
States.  It  is  not  a  sure  crop.  The  cultural  practices  for  broccoli  are 
about  the  same  as  for  cauliflower  except  that  more  space  and  a  longer 
growing  season  are  required. 

BRUSSELS  SPROUTS 

The  edible  portions  of  Brussels  sprouts  are  the  buds,  or  small  heads 

which  grow  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves  (Fig.  23).     The  heads,  1  to  2  inches 

in  diameter,  are  used  in  the  same  manner  as  cabbage  and  are  also  pickled. 

This  crop  has  been  grown  in  the  vicinity  of  Brussels,  Belgium  (from 

which  place  it  gets  its  name)  for  hundreds  of  years.     It  has  not  become 


COLE  CROPS 


229 


an  important  crop  in  the  United  States.     The  most  important  producing 
section  is  in  Suffolk  County,  New  York. 

Culture. — The  general  cultural  requirements  for  Brussels  sprouts  arc 
about  the  same  as  for  cauliflower.  The  plant  will  stand  considerable 
freezing  and  may  be  left  out  of  doors  until  very  severe  freezing  is  expected. 
On  Long  Island  the  plants  for  the  early  crop  are  set  out  during  the  latter 
part  of  June  and  early  July  and  for  the  late  crop  from  July  20  to  August 
15.  The  plants  are  spaced  2  to  3  feet  apart  in  the  row  with  the  rows  3 
feet  apart. 


Fig.  23.- 


-Plant  of  Brussel  sprouts  showing  a  large  number  of  partially  developed  heads 
the  stem. 


The  fertilizer  application  for  Brussels  sprouts  is  about  the  same  as  for 
cauliflower,  a  ton  or  more  to  the  acre  of  4-8-4,  5-7-5,  or  6-8-5  mixture. 
Manure  is  used  by  some  growers  and  in  the  absence  of  manure  some  cover 
crop  is  turned  under  to  supply  himius.  On  Long  Island  rye  is  the  principal 
cover  crop,  and  for  the  early  crop,  the  rye  is  allowed  to  grow  8  to  10 
inches  high  before  being  turned  under.  The  late  crop  sometimes  follows 
early  potatoes,  but  in  this  case  a  cover  crop  is  usually  plowed  under  for 
the  potato  crop. 

Harvesting. — Harvesting  begins  usually  in  three  to  three  and  a  half 
months  after  setting  the  plants.  Early  sprouts  should  be  picked  over 
several  times,  the  lowest  sprouts  on  the  plant  being  taken  each  time, 
otherwise  these  will  open  out  and  become  yellow.  The  first  picking  should 
not  be  delayed  after  the  lower  leaves  begin  to  turn  yellow  as  the  sprouts 


230  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

get  tough  and  lose  their  deUcate  flavor.  In  picking  the  leaf  below  the 
sprout  is  })roken  off  and  the  sprout  removed  by  breaking  away  from  the 
stalk.  As  the  lower  leaves  and  sprouts  are  removed  the  plant  continues 
to  push  out  new  leaves  at  the  top  and  in  the  axilof  each  leaf  a  bud  or  sprout 
is  formed.  The  sprouts  are  placed  in  baskets  or  other  containers  as 
picked  and  carried  or  hauled  to  the  packing  house  where  they  are  placed 
in  quart  berry  boxes.  These  boxes  are  packed  in  the  ordinary  32-quart 
berry  crate  for  shipment. 

As  freezing  weather  sets  in  the  plants  are  pulled  up  or  cut  off  near  the 
surface  of  the  ground  and  hauled  to  a  shed  or  to  some  convenient  place 
near  the  packing  shed  and  stacked.  A  sheltered  place,  if  available,  is 
selected  for  stacking.  The  plants  are  stood  upright  on  the  ground  as 
close  together  as  possible  and  a  light  covering  of  marsh  hay,  seaweed,  or 
other  material  is  placed  over  them.  Only  a  light  covering  is  necessary 
since  freezing  does  not  injure  the  sprouts  if  they  are  thawed  gradually, 
but  alternate  freezing  and  thawing  spoils  them.  The  stacks  are  only  one 
laj^er  deep. 

After  the  plants  are  stacked  the  sprouts  may  be  picked  at  any  time 
through  the  winter.  The  leaves  are  stripped  from  the  plants  before  they 
are  brought  into  the  packing  house  and  the  sprouts  are  removed  with  a 
small  knife.  After  removal  of  the  sprouts  they  are  stripped  of  the  outer, 
yellow  leaves  and  placed  in  berry  boxes. 

For  home  use  Brussels  sprouts  can  be  stored  in  a  cool  cellar,  where 
they  may  be  kept  for  a  large  part  of  the  winter  if  the  conditions  are 
favorable.  In  mild  climates  the  plants  may  be  left  in  the  field  or  garden 
throughout  the  winter. 

KOHL-RABI 

Kohl-rabi  is  grown  for  the  turnip-like  enlargement  of  the  stem  above 
ground  (Fig.  24).  It  is  little  known  and  is  not  appreciated  in  the  United 
States,  although  it  is  an  excellent  vegetable  if  used  before  it  becomes  tough 
and  stringy.  For  good  quality  the  growth  must  be  rapid  and  there  should 
be  no  check.  The  plants  may  be  started  in  the  greenhouse  or  hotbed 
for  an  early  crop  but  the  more  common  practice  is  to  plant  the  seed  where 
the  crop  is  to  mature. 

Culture. — The  seed  is  sown  in  rows  18  inches  apart  for  hand  cultiva- 
tion or  24  to  30  inches  for  horse  cultivation.  The  plants  are  thinned 
to  stand  8  to  12  inches  apart  in  the  row.  Four  to  5  pounds  of  seed  will 
plant  an  acre.  Planting  at  intervals  of  2  to  3  weeks  will  secure  the  proper 
sequence  and  insure  a  continuous  supply  of  tender  kohl-rabi. 

A  rich  garden  soil  will  produce  excellent  kohl-rabi.  If  the  soil  is 
not  already  rich  a  liberal  dressing  of  manure  is  desirable.  If  manure 
is  not  available  green-manure  crops  and  commercial  fertihzer  may  be 
used  as  substitutes.     A  high-grade  fertilizer  (4-8-4  or  5-10-5)  at  the  rate 


COLE  CROPS 


231 


of  1,000  to  1,500  pounds  to  the  acre  in  conjunction  with  soil-improving 
crops  should  give  good  results. 

Cultivation  similar  to  that  given  cabbage  or  cauliflower  is  satis- 
factory for  kohl-rabi,  but  when  planted  in  rows  less  than  24  inches  apart 
hand  cultivators  are  used. 

Varieties. — The  most  popular  varieties  are  White  Vienna,  Green 
Vienna,  Purple  Vienna  and  Earliest  Erfurt.  The  White  Vienna  is  prob- 
ably grown  to  a  greater  extent  than  all  of  the  others  combined. 


Fig.  24. — Kohl-rabi  plant  showing  root,  swollen  stem  and  leaves.     The  edible  portion  is 
the  turnip-shaped  stem. 

Harvesting. — Kohl-rabi  should  be  harvested  when  the  swollen  stem 
is  2  to  3  inches  in  diameter  and  before  it  becomes  tough  and  woody. 
When  prepared  for  market  the  root  is  cut  off  and  the  plants  are  tied 
together  in  bunches  like  beets,  or  sold  in  bulk. 


CHINESE  CABBAGE 

Chinese  cabbage  is  little  grown  in  the  United  States  and  is  considered 
a  new  vegetable  although  it  has  been  known  by  authorities  in  this  country 
for  many  years.  It  is  grown  as  a  potherb  and  also  as  a  salad  plant.  It 
requires  a  rich  soil,  abundance  of  moisture  and  a  cool  season.  Quick, 
continuous  growth  is  important,  for  a  serious  check  in  growth  hastens 
the  development  of  the  flower  stalk. 

This  plant  is  probably  a  native  of  China  where  it  has  been  in  cultiva- 
tion since  the  fifth  century. 


232  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

Chinese  cabbage  (Brassica  pekinensis)  is  not  a  true  cabbage  since 
it  belongs  to  a  different  species.  It  is  an  annual  and  has  very  few  charac- 
teristics of  the  true  cabbage.  Some  types,  or  varieties,  resemble  chard 
and  others  resemble  cos  lettuce.  Two  distinct  types  are  grown  in  the 
United  States.  One  is  a  tall  plant  with  a  head  12  to  15  inches  long  and 
is  often  called  Pe-Tsai  while  the  other  has  a  shorter  and  more  compact 
head.     The  latter  type  is  often  called  Wong  Bok. 

Culture. — Chinese  cabbage  thrives  best  during  the  cooler  portion 
of  the  growing  season,  therefore,  in  the  South  it  is  grown  as  a  winter 
crop,  and  in  the  other  portions  of  the  country  as  a  fall  crop.  Hundreds 
of  attempts  have  been  made  to  produce  Chinese  cabbage  as  an 
early  summer  crop,  but  in  most  seasons  the  plants  go  to  seed  before 
forming  a  head. 

When  Chinese  cabbage  is  started  as  a  spring  crop  the  seed  is  sown  in 
a  greenhouse  or  hotbed  and  the  plants  are  handled  about  the  same  as 
cabbage.  It  is  important,  however,  to  prevent  a  check  in  growth,  and, 
for  this  reason,  the  plants  should  not  be  allowed  to  get  too  large  before 
setting  out.  It  is  best  to  set  them  in  the  field  within  4  weeks  of  the  time 
the  seed  is  sown. 

As  a  fall  crop  the  seeds  are  often  sown  where  the  crop  is  to  mature 
and  after  the  plants  become  established  they  are  thinned  to  stand  10 
to  15  inches  apart,  depending  upon  the  variety  and  the  richness  of  the 
soil.  Some  growers  prefer  to  grow  the  plants  in  an  outdoor  seed  bed 
and  to  transplant  the  young  plants  to  the  field.  If  the  plants  are  to 
be  transplanted  the  work  should  be  done  while  the  plants  are  small. 

Any  rich  soil  which  is  retentive  of  moisture  and  in  a  good  physical 
condition  will  produce  a  satisfactory  crop  of  Chinese  cabbage  when  the 
other  conditions  are  favorable.  Market  gardeners  select  either  a  good 
loam  or  a  sandy  loam  for  this  crop.  A  good  muck  soil  is  almost  ideal 
for  Chinese  cabbage  since  this  type  of  soil  is  rich  in  nitrogen  and  is  reten- 
tive of  moisture.  The  largest  crops,  seen  by  the  author,  were  produced 
on  mucks. 

When  grown  on  this  soil  a  complete  fertilizer  high  in  potash  is  used, 
either  a  2-8-10  or  4-8-10  mixture.  For  mineral  soils  a  5-10-5  fertilizer 
mixture  will  ordinarily  give  good  results  if  used  at  the  rate  of  1,000  to 
1,500  pounds  to  the  acre.  If  the  soil  is  not  well  supplied  with  humus 
manure  should  be  applied,  or  a  green-manure  crop  turned  under  prior  to 
planting  Chinese  cabbage. 

The  general  care  of  the  crop  is  about  the  same  as  that  given  cauli- 
flower, but  the  length  of  time  required  to  grow  a  crop  of  Chinese  cabbage 
is  less  than  for  cauliflower. 

Varieties. — The  Oriental  Seed  Company,  San  Francisco,  California, 
lists  and  describes  seven  varieties  of  Chinese  cabbage  in  the  1922  catalogue 
as  follows : 


COLE  CROPS  233 

Paoting  (genuine  "Wong  Bok")  big,  compact,  tender  and  crisp.  We  have 
found  this  to  be  absokitely  the  best  firm-heading  Chinese  cabbage  to  grow  during 
the  summer  months.  It  will  not  scald  or  burn .  .  .  .  It  is  excellent  in  quality, 
crisp,  tender  and  brittle  with  a  fine  celery  flavor.  It  will  produce  a  head  of  15 
pounds  and  will  stand  long  before  going  to  seed. 

Peking  (genuine  "Pe-Tsai")  similar  to  the  Chokurei  in  general  appearance 
but  is  superior  to  it  in  every  way.  .  .  .  The  interior  blanches  creamy-white, 
crisp  and  delicious ....  It  produces  successfully  throughout  the  year  and  is 
considered  one  of  the  best  fall  and  winter  Pe-Tsai.  It  is  a  good  keeper  and 
shipper  and  its  attractive  appearance  and  fine  quality  make  it  one  of  the  best 
sellers. 

Chosen. — This  is  an  old  and  popular  standard  variety  with  excellent  flavor 
....  Grows  up  more  like  cos  lettuce,  with  broad  clumped  leaves  and  is  of 
easy  maturity,  tender  and  mild  in  cabbage  flavor. 

Shantung,  a  production  of  Shantung,  a  province  of  China.  Distinctive 
flavor,  very  mild  and  pleasant.  The  outside  leaves  are  large  and  round,  the  heart 
is  snowy-white  with  compact  leaves  tightly  held  together. 

Chokurei,  a  most  excellent  one  among  the  varieties.  Large  outside  leaves 
with  a  yellow  striped  color  and  the  inside  leaves  grow  round  gradually,  more 
like  cos  lettuce.  The  heart  is  pure  white,  tender,  sweet  and  delicate  in  taste. 
The  young  leaves  are  very  popular  for  use  in  salad.  It  is  very  hardy  and  will 
keep  until  early  spring  if  placed  in  the  cellar. 

Kinshu. — This  is  our  leading  variety,  the  best  and  most  popular  grown, 
known  for  its  quality  and  compact  leaves  which  are  held  tightly  together.  The 
leaves  have  some  wrinkles  and  grow  more  like  head  cabbage,  a  little  shorter  than 
the  preceding  variety  and  taller  than  Che-foo.  The  best,  and  easily  self-blanch- 
ing.    The  heart  is  snow-white,  crisp  and  tender. 

Che-foo. — One  of  the  most  excellent  varieties.  Large  outside  leaves  with  a 
dark  greenish  color  and  the  inside  is  compact,  tightly  grown  and  has  a  beautiful 
white,  crisp  appearance  with  a  mild  cabbage  flavor,  delicate  and  delicious.  It  is 
naturally  very  hardy  and  productive  and  will  stand  against  insects. 

Harvesting. — Chinese  cabbage  is  harvested  when  the  heads  are 
fully  developed.  The  heads  are  cut  from  the  stalk  in  the  same  manner  as 
cabbage  or  cauliflower.  The  loose,  outer  leaves  are  removed  as  shown  in 
Fig.  25,  and  the  heads  are  packed  in  various  ways.  All  kinds  of  pack- 
ages are  used  since  the  crop  has  not  become  of  sufficient  importance  to 
demand  a  special  package.  Some  growers  use  flat  baskets,  others  use 
boxes  and  crates  of  various  kinds.  Lettuce  boxes  are  used  to  some  extent 
and  they  are  fairly  satisfactory  for  the  long-headed  varieties.  The  heads 
are  usually  laid  in  the  package  rather  than  placing  them  upright,  although 
the  latter  method  has  been  used  in  packing  in  celery  crates. 

Chinese  cabbage  has  been  grown  mainly  for  local  markets,  but  the 
industry  is  developing  at  considerable  distances  from  the  consuming 
centers,  therefore  a  good  shipping  package  is  needed. 

Storage. — In  China  on  the  approach  of  winter  the  plants  are  pulled, 
the  outer  leaves  are  removed  and  the  heads  are  stored  in  an  outside  cellar. 


234  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

In  the  United  States  storage  has  not  been  practiced  to  any  great  extent, 
although  successful  attempts  have  been  made  to  store  in  cold-storage 
warehouses.  At  Cleveland,  Ohio,  Chinese  cabbage  has  been  kept  for  two 
months   in  cold  storage.     Mrs.   Fred   Os])orne,   Ann  Arbor,  Michigan, 


Fig.  25.- — Heads  of  Chinese  cabbage,   with  the  outer  leaves  removed.      {Coiirlcay,    U.  S 
Dcparttncnt  of  Agrictilture). 

stored  a  carload  of  Chinese  cabbage  in  cold  storage  in  Detroit  during  the 
fall  of  1919.  The  heads  were  cut  from  the  stalk  and  placed  upright  in 
celery  crates.  Some  of  the  heads  were  wrapped  in  paper  while  others 
were  not  wrapped.  Mrs.  Osborne  reported  no  difference  in  keeping 
between  those  wrapped  and  those  not  wrapped  since  they  all  kept  in 
perfect  condition  for  a  month. 


CHAPTER  XXI 

ROOT  CROPS 

Beet  Rutabaga 

Carrot  Radish 

Parsnip  Horse-radish 

Salsify  Turnip-rooted  Chervil 

Scorzonera  or  Black  Salsify  Skirret 

ScoLYMUs  OR  Spanish  Salsify  Celeriac 

Turnip 

These  root  crops  thrive  best  in  a  cool  season  and  in  a  deep  friable 
soil.  When  produced  in  the  South  they  are  grown  during  the  winter. 
Those  requiring  only  a  short  growing  period  do  better  in  spring  and  fall 
than  in  midsummer.  All  of  the  root  crops  are  hardy,  therefore  may  be 
planted  early  in  the  spring  in  the  North  and  may  be  left  in  the  field  or 
garden  until  late  in  the  fall. 

All  of  the  root  crops  listed  above  have  similar  cultural  requirements. 
When  grown  for  market  they  are  produced  on  an  intensive  scale 
and  are  cultivated  mainly  by  hand.  Seeds  are  nearly  always  sown 
where  the  crop  is  to  mature,  the  only  exception  being  the  beet,  seeds 
of  which  are  sometimes  sown  in  a  greenhouse  or  hotbed  for  a  very 
early  crop. 

While  the  root  crops  are  not  of  as  much  commercial  importance  as 
many  of  our  vegetables,  some  of  them  are  grown  in  nearly  all  home  gar- 
dens and  in  most  market  gardens.  They  are  grown  to  some  extent  as 
truck  crops  to  be  shipped  to  distant  markets,  but  not  to  as  great  extent 
as  most  of  the  other  well-known  vegetables. 

BEET 

The  garden  beet  is  one  of  the  most  important  of  the  root  crops, 
being  grown  in  nearly  all  home  gardens  and  in  a  large  percentage 
of  market  gardens.  The  value  of  the  commercial  crop  in  1919, 
as  reported  by  the  Bureau  of  the  Census,  was  $1,016,507,  but  this 
does  not  indicate  its  importance.  It  is  grown  on  such  a  small  scale 
by  many  market  gardeners  that  the  crop  is  not  reported.  This  is 
shown  by  the  fact  that  only  7,197  farms  in  the  United  States  are 
reported  as  having  grown  beets  for  sale  in  1919.  The  average  value 
per  acre  in  1919  was  $193. 

23.5 


236  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

History  and  Taxonomy. — The  garden  beet  is  probably  a  native  of 
Europe,  and  while  it  has  been  known  since  about  the  third  century  it 
is  essentially  a  modern  vegetable.  The  first  appearance  of  the  improved 
beet  in  Germany  is  recorded  about  1558  and  in  England  about  1576.  It 
was  mentioned  by  McMahon  in  1806  as  being  grown  in  the  gardens  of 
America  at  that  time,  although  it  is  not  definitely  known  when  it  was  first 
brought  over. 

The  beet  is  a  biennial  of  the  Chenopodiaceae  or  goosefoot  family. 
The  garden  beet,  stock  beet  or  mangel,  sugar  beet  and  chard  belong  to  the 
same  species,  Beta  vulgaris.  The  plant  produces  a  thickened  root  and  a 
rosette  of  leaves  the  first  year;  the  second  year  it  goes  to  seed.  The 
flower  stalk  grows  to  a  height  of  about  4  feet.  The  calyx  continues  to 
grow  after  flowering,  becomes  corky  and  completely  covers  the  seeds. 
This  forms  what  is  commonly  called  the  beet  seed,  but  in  reality  is  a 
fruit  containing  usually  2  to  6  seeds.  The  true  seeds  are  small,  kidney- 
shaped  and  brown  in  color.  They  retain  their  germinating  power  for 
5  or  6  3^ears. 

Soil  Preferences. — While  beets  are  grown  on  nearly  all  types  of  soil, 
they  thrive  best  on  a  fairly  deep,  friable  loam,  moist,  but  well  drained. 
The  crop  is  grown  commercially  on  sandy  loam  soil  more  than  on  any 
other  type.  Such  a  soil  is  especially  desirable  for  an  early  crop,  where 
earliness  is  more  important  than  large  yields.  Where  large  yields  are 
most  important,  as  in  growing  the  crop  for  canning  or  for  the  fall  and 
winter  market,  a  deep  rich  alluvial  soil  such  as  a  silt  loam  is  considered 
very  desirable.  Muck  soil  is  almost  ideal  for  late  beets  since  it  is  loose 
and  moist.  Heavy  soils  are  not  satisfactory  since  beets  are  likely  to  be 
unsymmetrical  in  form  when  grown  on  such  soils.  It  requires  less  labor 
to  care  for  a  crop  of  beets  on  a  loose  friable  soil  than  on  a  heav}^  compact 
soil. 

The  soil  for  beets,  and  all  of  the  other  root  crops,  should  be  thoroughly 
prepared  and  the  surface  should  be  loOse  and  smooth.  It  is  difficult  to 
plant  and  care  for  a  crop  of  beets  on  poorly  prepared  land.  Good  prepa- 
ration is  more  essential  for  crops  cultivated  by  hand  than  those  cultivated 
by  horse-drawn  cultivators,  since  hand  cultivators  are  light  and  not 
adapted  to  heavy  work,  or  for  work  in  rough  cloddy  soil.  After 
thoroughly  pulverizing  the  soil  it  is  desirable  to  smooth  the  surface  by  the 
use  of  a  meeker  harrow  or  drag  just  before  planting  the  seed. 

Manures  and  Fertilizers. — Beets  must  make  rapid  and  continuous 
growth  to  develop  the  highest  quality,  therefore,  a  good  supply  of  avail- 
able nitrogen,  phosphorus  and  potash  is  necessary.  On  sandy  and  sandy 
loam  soils  manure  is  valuable  to  supply  humus  as  well  as  fertilizing  elements 
and  on  heavy  soils  it  is  of  importance  in  improving  the  physical  condition 
by  making  them  more  friable.  It  is  best,  however,  to  apply  fresh  manure 
to  a  crop  preceding  beets  on  account  of  the  weed  factor.     Well-rotted 


ROOT  CROPS  237 

manure  may  be  applied  to  the  land  without  danger  of  introducing  weed 
seeds.  Under  most  conditions  it  is  probably  not  economical  to  depend 
upon  manure  alone.  Applications  of  15  to  20  tons  of  manure,  supple- 
mented with  commercial  fertilizers,  will  produce  large  yields  if  conditions 
are  favorable  for  beets.  Results  of  6  years'  experiments  at  the  Rhode 
Island  Station  on  a  silt  loam  soil  {Bull.  188)  show  that  16  tons  of  manure 
and  1,000  pounds  of  a  4-7-6  fertilizer  produced  a  considerably  larger 
yield  than  32  tons  of  manure.  In  both  cases  the  manure  was  applied  to  a 
crop  of  cabbage  which  preceded  the  beets  the  same  season.  The  plats 
treated  with  16  tons  of  manure  also  had  1,500  pounds  of  a  4-10-2  fertil- 
izer applied  to  the  cabbage  so  that  the  comparison  is  between  the  residue 
from  32  tons  of  manure  and  of  the  16  tons  supplemented  with  the  equiva- 
lent of  1 ,000  pounds  of  a  4-7-6  fertilizer.  Extra  nitrogen  added  to  the 
regular  fertilizer  treatment  greatly  increased  the  yield,  as  did  extra  phos- 
phorus. Extra  potash  gave  only  a  slight  increase  over  the  "manure  and 
fertilizer"  treatment.  See  Chapter  III  for  a  complete  record  and  discus- 
sions of  these  results. 

When  manure  is  not  used  it  is  necessary,  on  most  soils,  to  use  green- 
manure  crops  to  maintain  the  humus  supply  and  to  apply  commercial 
fertilizers  to  furnish  the  necessary  chemical  elements.  The  amount  and 
kinds  of  fertilizer  that  should  be  applied  depends  upon  the  type  of  soil 
and  its  fertility.  On  an  ordinary  sandy  loam  soil  an  apphcation  of  1,000  to 
1,500  pounds  of  a  4-8-4  fertilizer  should  give  good  results.  On  a  silt 
loam  or  clay  loam  both  the  nitrogen  and  potash  might  be  reduced.  For 
a  muck  soil  a  fertihzer  containing  2  per  cent  nitrogen,  8  per  cent  phos- 
phoric acid  and  8  to  10  per  cent  potash  is  suggested.  This  may  be 
applied  at  the  rate  of  1,000  to  1,500  pounds  to  the  acre.  For  late  beets 
on  a  fairly  rich  soil,  especially  when  manure  is  used  in  the  rotation,  many 
growers  use  only  about  800  pounds  of  a  good  grade  of  fertilizer  per  acre 
and  secure  high  yields. 

Planting. — A  large  part  of  the  beet  crop  is  grown  from  seeds  planted 
where  the  plants  are  to  mature,  but  a  few  early  beets  are  grown  from 
plants  started  in  a  greenhouse  or  hotbed.  In  growing  plants  for  trans- 
planting the  seed  is  sown  several  weeks  prior  to  the  time  for  outdoor 
planting.  The  plants  may  be  allowed  to  grow  in  the  seed  bed  until  time 
to  set  them  in  the  field  or  garden,  or  they  may  be  transplanted  to  flats, 
spacing  them  about  lYi  inches  each  way  as  described  for  celery.  By 
growing  plants  as  described  it  is  possible  to  get  beets  large  enough  for 
market  two  to  three  weeks  earlier  than  is  possible  by  planting  seed  in  the 
garden.  The  transplanting  method  is  expensive  and  is  justified  only 
where  high  prices  can  be  secured. 

Seeds  and  well-hardened  plants  may  be  planted  outdoors  as  soon  as 
the  danger  of  hard  freezes  is  over  since  light  frosts  will  not  injure  the 
plants.     In  the  South  the  crop  is  planted  during  the  winter,  the  time 


238  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

depending  upon  the  severity  of  the  weather.  Where  hard  freezes  do 
not  occur  the  seed  may  be  sown  any  time  during  the  winter.  For  a 
succession  of  young,  tender  beets  several  plantings  should  be  made  at 
intervals  of  two  or  three  weeks  apart.  It  is  the  practice  of  many  to  make 
a  late  sowing  of  some  quick-maturing  variety  for  fall  and  winter  use 
rather  than  to  plant  a  slow-maturing  variety  in  late  spring  or  early 
summer.  By  following  this  practice  it  is  possible  to  grow  some  other 
crop  on  the  land  before  time  for  planting  beet  seed  for  the  late  crop.  A 
quick-maturing  variety  will  reach  edible  size  in  60  to  75  days. 

Plants  are  set  by  hand  and  are  spaced  about  4  inches  apart  in  rows  12 
to  18  inches  apart  for  hand  cultivation.  Seed  is  sown  with  seed  drills  in 
rows  12  to  18  inches  apart  and  4  to  6  pounds  of  seed  are  required  to  the 
acre.  Since  the  so-called  seeds  are  uneven  in  size  and  irregular  in  shape 
it  is  difficult  to  make  an  even  distribution.  By  sifting  the  seeds  through 
screens  separating  them  into  various  sizes  a  fair  distribution  can  be  made. 
The  seed  is  covered  %  of  an  inch  to  1}-^  inches  in  depth  depending  upon 
the  kind  of  soil  and  the  amount  of  moisture  present.  On  light  soils  the 
covering  should  be  deeper  than  on  heavy  soils,  and  when  the  soil  is  dry 
more  covering  is  needed  than  when  it  is  moist. 

Thinning. — Thinning  is  necessary  no  matter  how  evenly  the  seed  has 
been  planted  since  each  fruit  contains  more  than  one  seed.  The  plants 
come  up  in  clumps  and  all  but  one  of  these  should  be  removed.  Very 
often  thinning  is  delayed  until  the  beets  are  large  enough  to  use  when  the 
larger  ones  are  removed  and  the  small  ones  left  to  develop.  Those  left 
to  mature  should  be  spaced  3  or  4  inches  apart. 

Cultivation. — Clean,  shallow  cultivation  should  be  given  as  needed  to 
keep  down  weeds  and  to  maintain  a  soil  mulch.  The  root  system  is  not 
very  large  and  the  beet  seems  to  respond  to  cultivation  even  where  weeds 
are  not  a  factor.  (See  Chapter  X.)  Most  cultivation  is  done  by  hand, 
using  wheel  hoes  with  either  knife  attachments  or  the  cultivator  teeth,  the 
former  being  better  for  killing  weeds  and  the  latter  for  forming  a  mulch. 
Some  hand  hoeing,  or  hand  weeding  is  necessary  to  keep  down  weeds 
between  the  plants  in  the  row. 

Varieties. — Goff  (56)  in  1887  proposed  the  following  simple  classifi- 
cation of  garden  beets  based  on  shape  and  color. 

1.  Root  oblate  or  top-shaped;  3.  Root  half-long: 

A.  Root  Red  A.  Root  red 

B.  Root  yellow  B.  Root  yellow 

2.  Root  oval:  4.  Root  concial: 

A.  Root  red  A.  Root  red 

B.  Root  yellow  B.  Root  yellow 

The  yellow  beets  are  of  very  little  importance  at  the  present  time  and 
varieties  of  this  color  are  seldom  listed.     Of  the  oblate  or  top-shaped 


ROOT  CROPS  239 

roots  of  a  red  color  Early  Blood  Turnip,  Eclipse,  Egyptian  and  Bassano 
are  varieties  that  are  still  grown. 

The  most  popular  varieties  of  early  beets  are  Crosby's  Egyptian  and 
others  of  the  Egyptian  type,  followed  by  Eclipse.  Other  early  varieties 
grown  to  some  extent  are  Early  Model,  Edmand's  Early,  Early  Blood  and 
Crimson  Globe,  The  Detroit  Dark  Red  is  the  most  popular  late  variety, 
followed  by  Edmand's  Blood  Turnip.  It  is  a  common  practice  among 
growers  in  many  regions  to  make  a  late  planting  of  some  early  variety 
such  as  Egyptian  and  Eclipse,  instead  of  planting  varieties  requiring  a 
long  growing  season. 

Leaf  Spot. — Leaf  spot  {Cercospora  heiicola)  is  very  widespread 
in  the  eastern  and  middle  states.  The  spots  are  ashen  gray,  surrounded 
by  a  purple  border.  The  spot  often  drops  out  and  the  leaf  presents  a  shot- 
holed  appearance.  A  large  part  of  the  green  tissue  of  the  leaves  may  be 
destroyed  or  the  leaves  may  die,  in  which  case  they  blacken  and  remain 
standing.  As  the  leaves  die  new  ones  are  formed  thus  elongating  the 
crown. 

Cleaning  up  the  refuse  after  harvesting  the  crop  and  practicing 
rotation  are  beneficial.  Thorough  spraying  with  Bordeaux  mixture 
affords  some  control  but  it  is  seldom  practiced. 

Beet  Leaf-miner. — The  larva  is  a  white  maggot,  about  one-third 
of  an  inch  long,  which  burrows  in  the  tissue  of  the  leaves  of  beets,  chard, 
spinach  and  lamb's-quarter.  They  feed  on  the  tissues  between  the  upper 
and  lower  layers  of  the  leaf  and  often  cause  serious  injury  by  rendering 
the  foliage  unfit  for  food  and  checking  the  growth  of  the  plant.  Infested 
leaves  present  a  bHstered  appearance. 

Since  the  larva  lives  within  the  tissue  of  the  leaf  it  cannot  be  reached 
by  poisons.  Destruction  of  fallen  leaves  and  other  refuse  by  plowing 
immediately  after  harvesting  the  crop  will  aid  in  controlling  this  pest 
since  it  passes  the  winter  under  rubbish  in  the  field.  Destruction  of 
lamb's-quarter  is  also  advised.  Planting  crops  early  in  the  spring,  or 
late  in  autumn,  when  the  insect  is  not  present  is  practiced  in  growing 
spinach  where  this  insect  is  serious. 

Webworms. — At  least  two  species  of  webworms  attack  beets  by 
eating  the  leaves.  The  eggs  are  deposited  on  the  leaves  and  the  larvae 
attack  the  foliage,  either  spinning  small  webs  among  the  tender  leaves 
or  else  feeding  on  the  underside,  protected  by  a  small  web  or  with  no 
protection  whatever. 

Spraying  with  arsenate  of  lead  will  aid  in  controlling  this  insect  if 
care  is  taken  to  cover  the  underside  of  the  leaves. 

Harvesting. — Beets  for  bunching  are  often  harvested  as  soon  as  they 
attain  a  diameter  of  l}i  to  l}^  inches.  Very  often  this  is  a  thinning 
process,  the  larger  ones  being  removed  each  time,  thus  allowing  the  small 
ones  room  to  develop.     After  they  reach  2  inches  in  diameter  bunch  beets 


240  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

are  not  in  great  demand.  The  beets  are  pulled  by  hand  and  the  injured 
or  dead  leaves  are  removed  before  being  bunched.  Four  to  six  beets  are 
tied  together,  with  the  tops  on,  and  then  they  are  washed  to  remove  any 
soil  adhering  to  them.  When  bunched  beets  are  shipped  considerable 
distances  the  tops  are  often  cut  back  about  half  way  and  the  bunches  are 
packed  in  boxes,  crates  or  baskets. 

The  late  crop  of  beets  is  pulled  by  hand,  or  loosened  by  means  of  a 
plow.  The  tops  are  removed  as  soon  as  they  are  harvested  and  the  beets 
are  packed  for  shipment  or  put  in  storage.  They  are  packed  in  boxes, 
crates,  baskets  or  bags  and  no  particular  grading  is  done,  although  the 
very  large  roots,  the  small  ones  and  those  injured  in  any  way  are 
discarded. 

Storing. — Beets  are  very  often  stored  in  out-door  pits  or  banks  and 
in  common  storage  houses  of  the  types  described  in  Chapter  XV.  The 
best  temperature  for  beets  is  near  the  freezing  point,  but  they  should 
not  be  allowed  to  freeze.  The  air  in  the  storage  house  or  cellar  should 
be  kept  rather  humid  to  prevent  wilting  and  withering  of  the  roots. 
Beets  keep  well  in  cold  storage  at  a  temperature  of  about  32  degrees  F., 
and  this  type  of  storage  is  being  used. 

CARROT 

The  carrot  (Daucus  carota)  is  a  very  popular  vegetable  and  is  increas- 
ing in  importance,  due  to  the  fact  that  its  value  in  the  diet  is  better 
understood  than  it  was  formerly.  It  is  especially  desirable  for  children 
and  its  use  is  advocated  by  doctors  and  dieticians. 

The  carrot  is  grown  in  most  home  gardens,  and,  on  a  small  scale 
in  a  large  percentage  of  market  gardens.  According  to  the  Census 
Report  6,522  acres  of  carrots  were  grown  for  sale  in  1919  and  the  value 
of  the  crop  was  $1,563,010,  but  this  probably  does  not  include  all  carrots 
grown  for  market.  New  York  is  credited  with  slightly  over  one-fourth 
of  the  total  commercial  acreage  or  1,810  acres  valued  at  $450,032,  and 
is  followed  by  Massachusetts  with  658  acres  valued  at  $178,269  and 
California  with  580  acres  valued  at  $120,342. 

History  and  Taxonomy. — The  carrot  is  a  native  of  Europe,  Asia  and 
northern  Africa  and  possibly  North  and  South  America.  It  was  prob- 
ably cultivated  by  the  ancients,  but  was  not  a  common  food  plant. 
It  is  now  grown  throughout  the  world,  but  is  more  appreciated  in  Europe 
than  in  America. 

It  is  a  biennial  of  the  Umbelliferae  or  parsley  family.  The  genus 
Daucus,  to  which  the  carrot  belongs,  contains  about  00  species,  some  of 
which  are  native  in  North  America.  Very  few  of  the  species  are  culti- 
vated. During  the  first  j^ear  a  thickened  root  and  a  whorl  of  leaves  are 
formed  and  at  the  beginning  of  the  second  year  the  flower  stalk  starts 
from  the  crown  and  grows  to  the  height  of  2  to  3  feet. 


ROOT  CROPS  241 

Soil  Preference. — The  carrot,  like  the  beet,  thrives  best  in  a  deep, 
loose  loamy  soil.  It  is  grown  commercially  on  sandy  loams,  silt,  silt 
loams  and  muck  soils.  For  an  early  crop  a  sandy  loam  is  preferred  but 
for  large  yields  silt,  silt  loam,  or  muck  is  preferred,  the  last  mentioned 
being  especially  desirable  because  of  its  fine,  loose  texture. 

The  preparation  of  the  soil  for  carrots,  should  be  the  same  as  for 
beets.  A  fine,  smooth  seed  bed  is  even  more  important  for  carrots  than 
for  beets,  since  carrot  seed  is  small  and  slow  to  germinate. 

Manures  and  Fertilizers. — The  discussion  of  manures  and  fertihzers 
for  beets  applies  equally  well  to  carrots  except  that  no  comparable 
experimental  data  are  availabe  for  the  latter.  The  carrot  is  consid- 
ered by  many  gardeners  to  be  especially  "hard  on  the  land"  probably 
due  to  its  heavy  draft  on  the  supply  of  potash.  Muck  soil  truckers 
report  smaller  yields  of  celery  and  onions  following  carrots  than  following 
any  other  crop.  This  has  not  been  proven  experimentally  but  the  belief 
is  so  general  that  there  is  probably  some  truth  to  it.  Since  muck  soils 
are  usually  poor  in  potash  and  since  carrots  utilize  large  amounts  of  this 
element  it  is  believed  that  a  large  application  of  a  potash  salt  would 
eliminate  the  apparent  injurious  effects  of  carrots  on  the  succeeding  crop. 
However,  other  factors  may  be  involved.  A  yield  of  10  tons  of  carrots 
will  remove  about  100  pounds  of  potash,  32  pounds  of  nitrogen  and  18 
pounds  of  phosphoric  acid.  According  to  Hartwell  (65)  the  carrot  is 
low  in  its  response  to  phosphorus  and  this  would  be  expected  from  the 
small  amount  removed  in  the  crop. 

Planting. — The  carrot  is  grown  from  seed  planted  where  the  crop  is 
to  mature.  It  is  hardy  and  the  seed  may  be  planted  in  the  North,  as 
soon  as  hard  freezes  are  over  in  the  spring  and  in  the  fall  or  winter  in  the 
sections  of  the  South  where  hard  freezes  do  not  occur.  For  a  succession 
of  tender  roots,  the  same  variety  may  be  planted  at  intervals  of  two  or 
three  weeks,  or  by  sowing  early  medium  and  late  varieties  at  the  same 
time.  The  last  sowing  of  a  quick-maturing  variety  may  be  made  as 
late  as  two  months  before  the  average  date  of  the  first  killing  frost  in 
autumn.  The  varieties  requiring  a  long  growing  season,  commonly 
called  late,  require  from  four  to  five  months  to  mature.  Since  many 
consumers  prefer  small  roots  the  practice  of  growing  early,  small-rooted 
varieties  throughout  the  season  is  becoming  popular,  although  the  half- 
long  varieties  are  more  largely  planted  for  sale  for  fall  and  winter  use. 

Two  to  three  pounds  of  carrot  seed  are  sown  per  acre  when  the  crop 
is  to  be  cultivated  by  hand,  which  is  the  common  practice.  The  rows 
are  spaced  12  to  18  inches  apart  and  the  seed  is  sown  with  a  seed  drill 
where  a  considerable  quantity  is  planted.  In  the  home  garden  the  seed 
is  sown  by  hand  in  a  shallow  trench  made  with  the  handle  of  a  hoe  or 
rake  as  described  in  Chapter  IX.  Carrot  seed  is  covered  3^-^  to  %  inch 
in  depth,  the  greater  depth  being  on  light  drj^  soil. 


242 


VEGETABLE  CROPS 


Carrot  seeds  germinate  slowly-  and  it  is  desirable  to  sow  enough 
radish  seeds  with  them  to  mark  the  rows  so  that  cultivation  may  begin 
soon  after  planting.     The  radish  seed  will  germinate  in  a  few  days. 

Thinning. — Carrots  usually  require  thinning  and  this  is  an  expensive 
and  laborious  task.  As  soon  as  the  plants  become  well  established  they 
are  thinned  to  stand  2  to  4  inches  apart  in  the  row.  For  small-growing 
varieties  which  arc  to  be  marketed  as  bunched  carrots  a  space  of  2  inches, 
or  even  less,  between  plants  is  sufficient  and  for  the  larger  varieties  grown 
for  human  consumption  a  space  of  4  inches  is  ample.  On  muck  soil  less 
space  is  usually  given  since  the  soil  is  so  loose  that  there  is  no  danger  of 
the  roots  becoming  deformed  due  to  crowding.     In  fact  it  is  desirable  to 


Fig.  26. — Six  varieties  of  carrots  representing  the  important  types  and  varieties: 
],  Paris  Forcing;  2,  Short  Horn;  3,  Oxheart;  4,  Chantenay;  5,  Danvers  Half  Long;  6,  Long 
Orange. 


have  the  plants  stand  rather  thickly  on  a  loose,  rich  soil  to  prevent  the 
carrots  from  growing  too  large.  Small  to  medium-sized  roots  are  pre- 
ferred to  large  ones.  In  the  home  garden,  and  to  some  extent  in  the 
market  garden,  the  first  thinning  consists  of  removing  surplus  plants 
where  they  grow  in  clumps,  leaving  only  one  plant  in  a  place.  Later 
thinning  is  done  when  the  larger  roots  are  of  sufficient  size  to  be  used. 
The  larger  ones  are  removed  and  the  smaller  ones  left  to  develop. 

Cultivation. — Cultivation  to  keep  down  weeds  is  very  important, 
especially  in  the  early  stages  of  growth.  Since  the  carrot  grows  very 
slowly  for  the  first  few  weeks  it  cannot  compete  successfully  with  weeds. 
Shallow  cultivation  with  hand  cultivators  is  usually  given  and  the  knife 
attachments  are  used  when  there  is  considerable  weed  growth.  Culti- 
.vation  for  the  purpose  of  maintaining  a  soil  mulch  does  not  seem  to  be 
essential  when  weed  growth  is  not  a  factor.  This  may  be  due  to  the 
fact  that  the  carrot  develops  a  large,  and  ramified  root  system  as  dis- 
cussed in  Chapter  X. 


ROOT  CROPS  243 

Varieties. — Seedsmen  list  a  large  number  of  varieties  of  carrots  but 
only  a  few  of  them  are  of  any  great  importance.  The  most  popular 
varieties  are  Chantenay,  Dan  vers  Half-long,  Oxheart,  Rubicon,  Early 
Scarlet  Horn,  Half-long,  Short  Horn  and  Long  Orange  (Fig.  26).  The 
Danvers  Half-long  and  Chantenay  are  grown  more  than  all  others  and 
are  popular  for  both  early  and  late  planting.  Goff  (56)  in  1887  made 
the  following  classification  of  varieties: 

1.  Root  distinctly  pointed. 

A.  Root  long — the  length  exceeding  four  times  the  diameter. 
(fl)  Root  white 

{b)  Root  yellow 

(c)  Root  orange  or  red 

((/)  Root  purple 

B.  Root  half-long— the  length  not  exceeding  four  times  the  diameter. 
(a)  Root  white 

(6)  Root  orange  or  red 

2.  Root  distinctly  premorse  (blunt  at  lower  end) 

A.  Root  long — the  length  exceeding  four  times  the  diameter 
(fl)  Root  orange  or  red 

B.  Root  half-long — the  length  not  exceeding  four  times  the  diameter, 
(a)  Root  orange  or  red 

C.  Root  very  short — the  length  not  exceeding  twice  the  diameter. 
{a)  Root  orange  or  red. 

Harvesting. — Carrots  for  bunching  are  often  harvested  as  soon 
as  the  roots  are  i^  to  ^4  of  an  inch  in  diameter  at  the  upper  end. 
This  may  be  a  thinning  process.  When  the  entire  crop  is  to  be  removed 
at  one  time  and  the  roots  are  long  a  plow  may  be  used  to  advantage  by 
running  it  close  to  the  row  throwing  the  furrow  away  from  the  plants. 
The  roots  can  then  be  pushed  sideways  and  pulled  with  ease. 

Early  carrots  are  nearly  always  bunched  in  preparation  for  market. 
The  tops  are  left  on  and  8  to  1 2  roots  are  tied  in  a  bunch.  They  should  be 
washed  and  carefully  graded  before  being  put  on  the  market.  When  sold 
on  local  markets  the  bunches  are  usually  loaded  into  wagons  or  trucks 
without  containers,  but  when  shipped  they  are  packed  in  crates,  boxes, 
baskets  and  hampers. 

Late  carrots  are  usually  topped  as  harvested  and  are  sold  by  measure 
or  by  weight.  They  are  packed  in  various  types  of  boxes,  crates,  baskets, 
hampers  and  barrels,  and  even  in  bags. 

Storage. — Carrots  are  stored  in  the  same  manner  as  beets. 

PARSNIP 

The  parsnip  (Pastinaca  sativa)  is  not  a  very  important  commercial 
crop,  due  largely  to  the  fact  that  it  requires  a  long  growing  season,  so 
that  no  other  crop  can  be  grown  on  the  land  during  the  same  season.     On 


244  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

high-priced  market-gardening  land  growers  produce  two,  three  or  more 
crops  in  a  season.  In  addition  to  this  the  parsnip  is  not  a  popular  vege- 
table with  the  consumer.  According  to  the  Census  Report  the  value  of  the 
commercial  crop  in  1919  was  S241,435  and  the  value  of  the  product  per 
acre  was  $289. 

History  and  Taxonomy. — The  parsnip  is  a  native  of  Europe  and  Asia. 
The  parsnip  is  found  growing  wild  in  America,  but  only  as  an  introduced 
weed.  The  parsnip  has  been  used  as  food  from  an  early  period,  and  was 
undoubtedly  known  to  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans.  It  was  brought 
to  America  by  the  early  colonists  and  was  in  cultivation  in  Virginia  as 
early  as  1609  and  in  Massachusetts  in  1629. 

The  plant  is  a  biennial  of  the  Umbelliferae  or  parsley  family,  but  the 
crop  is  grown  as  an  annual.  The  second  year  the  seed  stalk  develops 
from  the  enlarged  root  produced  during  the  preceding  season. 

Soil  Preferences. — A  deep,  rich  soil  is  essential  for  successful  growing 
of  this  crop.  On  a  shallow  soil  the  roots  become  crooked,  and,  often 
branched.  Heavy  soils  are  objectionable  because  of  the  difficulty 
of  securing  a  good  stand  of  plants  and  smooth  roots.  Since  the  seeds 
are  very  slow  to  germinate  the  surface  of  a  heavy  soil  becomes  baked 
before  the  plants  have  a  chance  to  break  through,  hence  a  poor  stand 
usually  results  on  such  soils. 

The  methods  of  preparation  of  the  soil  for  the  parsnip  are  the  same  as 
for  the  beet. 

Manures  and  Fertilizers, — The  manure  and  fertilizer  treatments 
suggested  for  beets  should  give  satisfactory  results  for  parsnips  under 
similar  conditions. 

Planting. — Parsnip  seed  is  planted  where  the  crop  is  to  mature  and  since 
the  seed  is  slow  to  germinate  and  the  crop  requires  a  long  growing  season 
planting  is  usually  done  fairly  early  in  the  spring  when  the  soil  is  moist. 
The  seed  retains  its  vitality  only  one  or  two  years  and  should  be  planted 
thickly.  It  is  usually  sown  in  drills  about  15  to  18  inches  apart  for  hand 
cultivation  and  24  to  30  inches  for  horse  cultivation.  One  ounce  of  seed 
will  plant  about  200  feet  of  row  and  4  to  6  pounds  are  usually  planted  to 
the  acre  when  the  rows  are  about  15  inches  apart.  The  seed  is  covered 
}i  to  M  of  ^^  i^^ch  deep.  It  is  desirable  to  sow  some  radish  seed  with  the 
parsnips  so  that  cultivation  can  begin  before  the  parsnip  plants  break 
through  the  surface  of  the  soil. 

After  the  plants  are  well  established,  in  5  or  6  weeks,  they  are  usually 
thinned  to  stand  2  to  4  inches  apart  in  the  row.  Some  growers  leave  the 
plants  as  far  as  6  inches  apart  in  the  row,  but  this  distance  is  greater  than 
is  necessary  under  most  conditions. 

Cultivation. — Cultivation  should  begin  as  soon  as  weed  growth 
starts,  or  as  soon  as  a  crust  begins  to  form.  It  can  begin  in  a  few  days 
after  planting  if  radish  seed  has  been  sown  with  the  parsnip  seed,    It  is 


ROOT  CROPS  245 

important  to  keep  down  weed  growth  b\^  cultivating  and  weeding  until  the 
plants  are  large  enough  to  smother  the  weeds  in  the  row.  During  the 
early  stages  of  growth  parsnip  plants  are  delicate  and  cannot  compete 
successfully  with  weeds,  but  after  they  cover  the  ground  they  can  take 
care  of  themselves. 

Hand  cultivation  is  commonly  given  and  the  knife  attachments  are 
used  to  a  considerable  extent,  especially  when  the  parsnip  plants  are  small. 
The  Barker  weeder  or  mulcher  is  also  used  to  some  extent  and  this  is  very 
satisfactory  on  light  soil,  if  employed  while  the  weeds  are  very  small. 
This  implement  destroys  the  weeds  and  leaves  a  fine  mulch  of  soil  on  the 
surface. 

Varieties. — Very  few  varieties  of  parsnips  are  listed  by  American 
seedsmen  and  two  of  these,  Hollow  Crown  and  Guernsey  are  used  by  a 
large  percentage  of  growers.  Long  Dutch,  Model  and  Offenham  Market 
are  grown  to  some  extent. 

Harvesting. — Parsnips  are  usually  left  in  the  ground  until  late  in  the 
fall,  or  even  throughout  the  winter,  since  freezing  is  considered  to  improve 
their  flavor.  In  many  sections  they  are  left  in  the  garden  until  wanted 
for  use,  but  where  severe  freezing  occurs  this  is  not  satisfactory  because 
it  is  difficult  to  dig  them  when  the  ground  is  frozen.  The  common  prac- 
tice in  the  North  is,  therefore,  to  harvest  the  roots  late  in  the  fall  and  store 
them  where  they  are  available  when  wanted.  Since  the  parsnip  root 
grows  to  considerable  length,  10  to  12  inches,  it  is  difficult  and  expensive 
to  dig  them.  They  may  be  dug  by  hand  with  a  spading  fork  or  they  may 
be  loosened  with  a  plow.  When  a  plow  is  used  it  is  best  to  run  it  close 
to  the  row  and  throw  the  furrow  away  from  the  plants  and  then  loosen  the 
roots  by  pushing  them  toward  the  furrow.  Care  must  be  taken  to  pre- 
vent breaking  the  roots. 

After  digging,  the  tops  are  usually  removed  and  if  the  parsnips  are  to  be 
marketed  immediately  they  should  be  washed.  The  roots  are  packed  in 
various  types  of  packages,  including  baskets,  hampers,  crates  and  boxes. 

Occasionally  young,  tender  parsnips  are  harvested  and  sold  in  bunches 
with  the  tops  on  as  described  for  carrots  and  beets.  Four  to  six  speci- 
mens are  put  in  a  bunch.  This  practice  is  more  common  in  Europe  than 
in  America. 

Storage. — The  same  methods  of  storage  are  used  for  parsnips  as  for 
beets  and  carrots.  A  large  part  of  the  crop  is  sold  during  the  winter  and 
early  spring,  hence  storage  is  important  in  regions  where  the  soil  remains 
frozen  during  most  of  the  winter. 

SALSIFY 

Salsify  (Tragapogon  porrifolius)  also  known  as  "vegetable  oyster," 
because  of  its  flavor,  is  of  very  minor  importance  in  this  country,  but  is 
deserving  of  greater  use.     It  is  a  native  of  southern  Europe  and  is  of 


246  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

recent  culture,  probably  not  being  grown  as  a  food  plant  until  about  IGOO. 
It  is  a  hardy  biennial  belonging  to  the  Compositae  or  sunflower  family. 
The  leaves  are  very  narrow  resembling  those  of  the  leek  but  smaller. 

Culture. — Salsify  requires  a  long  growing  season  for  full  development 
and  the  culture  of  the  crop  is  practically  the  same  as  that  given  parsnips. 
The  seeds  are  sown  in  drills  12  to  15  inches  apart  and  the  plants  thinned 
to  stand  about  two  inches  apart  in  the  row. 

As  salsify  is  hardy  it  can  be  harvested  throughout  the  winter  in  most 
regions,  but  in  order  to  secure  a  continuous  supply  for  use  or  for  market 
it  is  desirable  to  store  a  part  of  the  crop.  It  may  be  stored  as  described 
for  beets. 

The  roots  are  prepared  for  market  by  cutting  away  all  but  2  or  3 
inches  of  the  leaves,  washing  the  roots  and  tying  10  to  12,  or  more 
plants  in  a  bunch.     The  bunch  is  usually  tied  tightly  near  both  ends. 

SCORZONERA  OR  BLACK  SALSIFY 

Scorzonera  {S.  hispanica  Linn.)  also  known  as  Black  Salsify,  is  a 
perennial,  native  of  central  and  southern  Europe.  It  belongs  to  the 
Compositae  family  and  is  grown  in  the  same  manner  as  salsify,  except 
that  it  is  given  more  room.  The  roots  are  long  and  black  and  are  boiled 
after  being  soaked  in  water  to  remove  the  bitter  taste. 

This  plant  was  known  in  Spain  about  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth 
century  for  its  medicinal  properties.  It  is  grown  in  Europe  as  a  food 
plant  but  is  practically  unknown  in  America. 

SCOLYMUS 

Scolymus  or  Spanish  Oyster  plant  {Scobjmus  hispanica  Linn.)  is  also 
a  native  of  Europe  and  a  member  of  the  Compositae  family.  It  is  grown 
and  used  in  the  same  way  as  salsify.  The  root  is  longer  and  produces  a 
larger  yield.  When  cooked  its  flavor  is  less  pronounced  than  that  of 
salsify,  but  it  has  an  agreeable  flavor  and  is  worthy  of  attention  in  this 
country.  It  can  be  dug  and  stored  in  the  fall  or  harvested  as  needed 
during  the  winter  and  spring.  The  leaves  of  this  plant  are  prickly  and 
somewhat  unpleasant  to  handle  on  this  account. 

TURNIP 

The  turnip  {Brassica  rapa)  is  not  of  great  commercial  importance,  but 
is  grown  by  a  large  percentage  of  home  gardeners.  The  value  of  the  crop 
grown  for  sale  in  1919,  according  to  the  Census  Report,  was  $543,071  and 
this  was  produced  on  4,056  acres.  Three  states.  New  York,  New  Jersej^ 
and  Massachusetts,  produced  over  one-fourth  of  this  acreage. 

The  turnip  is  a  cool-season  crop,  being  grown  mainly  in  the  fall  in  the 
northern  states  and  during  the  winter  in  the  South.  In  the  latter 
section  it  is  grown  mainly  for  the  tops  which  are  used  as  greens. 


ROOT  CROPS  247 

History  and  Taxonomy. — It  is  not  definitely  known  where  the  turnip 
originated,  but  it  is  said  to  be  found  growing  wild  in  Russia  and  Siberia. 
It  has  been  in  cultivation  since  ancient  times  and  was  brought  to  America 
at  an  early  period.     It  was  known  in  Virginia  in  1609. 

When  planted  in  the  spring  the  turnip  is  an  annual,  but  when  planted 
later  it  is  a  biennial.  It  belongs  to  the  genus  Brassica  and  the  family 
Cruciferae,  and  is  therefore  closely  related  to  the  cabbage,  cauliflower, 
rape,  kale,  etc. 

Soil  Preferences. — While  the  turnip  is  grown  on  all  types  of  soil 
it  thrives  best  on  a  deep  rich  loam. 

The  method  of  preparation  suggested  for  beets  and  carrots  would  be 
satisfactory  for  turnips.  In  fact  the  turnip  is  not  nearlj^  so  exacting  in 
this  respect  as  either  beets  or  carrots  since  the  seeds  germinate  quickly 
and  the  plants  make  rapid  growth. 

Manures  and  Fertilizers. — The  manure  and  fertilizer  treatments  sug- 
gested for  beets  would  be  satisfactory  for  turnips,  although  beets  are 
usually  more  heavily  fertilized.  Turnips  do  not  seem  to  need  as  much 
potash  as  most  of  the  other  root  crops,  but  require  as  much  phosphorus 
and  nitrogen.  Since  it  is  grown  very  largely  as  a  fall  crop,  following 
some  other  vegetable,  the  manure  and  fertilizer  applied  to  the  first  crop 
is  depended  upon  to  furnish  sufficient  mineral  nutrients  for  the  turnip. 
In  some  cases  additional  fertilizer,  especially  some  nitrogenous  material 
is  applied.  If  the  land  has  been  heavily  manured  and  fertilized  for  the 
first  crop  no  additional  treatment  is  needed,  but  under  most  conditions 
an  application  of  500  to  750  pounds  per  acre  of  a  good  fertilizer  would 
be  justified. 

Planting. — The  turnip  is  grown  almost  entirely  from  seed  sown  where 
the  crop  is  to  mature.  Since  it  does  not  thrive  in  hot  weather  the  seed 
is  planted  very  early  in  the  spring  and  in  late  summer  in  the  North, 
and  during  the  fall  and  winter  in  the  South.  For  the  fall  crop  in  the 
North  the  seed  should  be  planted  about  two  months  before  hard  freezes 
are  expected.  Seed  for  the  spring  crop  should  be  planted  as  soon  as 
the  soil  can  be  prepared. 

Turnip  seed  is  generally  planted  in  rows  12  to  15  inches  apart  for 
hand  cultivation  and  about  24  inches  apart  for  horse  cultivation.  Seed 
drills  are  used  where  a  considerable  area  is  to  be  planted  and  the  seed 
is  covered  about  ^^  inch  deep.  The  usual  rate  of  planting  is  2 
pounds  of  seed  to  the  acre  for  hand  cultivation  and  a  little  less  for  horse 
cultivation.  Broadcast  seeding  is  not  practiced  to  the  extent  that  it 
was  formerly,  but  when  this  method  is  followed  more  seed  is  required 
than  under  the  row  method.  A  comparison  of  drill  and  broadcast  sow- 
ing of  seed  was  made  at  the  Wyoming  Experiment  Station  and  the  results 
were  decidedly  in  favor  of  planting  in  rows.  Twelve  varieties  were  used 
in  the  experiment  and  the  average  yield  was  60,578.8  pounds  for  the 


248  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

drilled  and  28,429  pounds  for  broadcast  planting.  The  rows  were  30 
inches  apart  and  where  the  seed  was  sown  broadcast  it  covered  a  strip 
1  foot  wide.  (See  Wyoming  Bull.  22,  1894.) 

Thinning. — After  the  plants  become  well  established  they  are  thinned 
to  stand  2  to  6  inches  apart  in  the  row,  the  distance  depending  upon  the 
type  and  the  purpose  for  which  the  crop  is  grown.  If  small-growing 
varieties  are  grown  for  bunching  the  smaller  distance  is  sufficient  while  the 
large  varieties  require  the  greater  distance,  if  they  are  to  develop  to 
large  size.  In  the  South  the  thinning  continues  over  a  considerable  period 
and  the  plants  removed  are  used  as  greens. 

Cultivation. — Cultivation  is  usually  given  turnips  when  they  are 
grown  in  rows,  but  when  the  seed  is  sown  broadcast  cultivation 
is  impossible.  The  methods  of  cultivation  suggested  for  beets  is  satis- 
factory for  turnips. 

Varieties. — Turnips  may  be  separated  into  groups  based  on  shape 
and   color.     Goff   (56)   in   1887  suggested   the  following  classification: 

1.  Root  distinctly  conical,  or  cylindrical. 

A.  Root  white,  at  least  in  the  lower  part. 

B.  Root  yellow,  at  least  in  the  lower  part. 

C.  Root  grayish,  brown  or  black,  at  least  in  the  lower  part. 

2.  Root  more  or  less  distinctly  oval.     (Ovoid) 

A.  Root  white,  at  least  in  the  lower  part. 

B.  Root  yellow,  at  least  in  the  part  below  ground. 

3.  Root  spherical,  or  top-shaped. 

A.  Root  white,  at  least  in  the  lower  part. 

B.  Root  yellow,  at  least  in  the  lower  part. 

4.  Root  distinctly  flattened.     (Oblate) 

A.  Root  white,  at  least  below. 

B.  Root  yellow,  at  least  below. 

C.  Root  grayish,  brown  or  black. 

The  most  popular  varieties  are  the  Purple  Top  Globe,  White  Milan, 
White  Flat  Dutch,  White  Egg,  Yellow  Globe  and  Yellow  Aberdeen. 
The  Seven-top  is  a  popular  variety  in  the  South  where  the  foliage  is 
used  for  greens. 

Diseases  and  Insects. — Most  of  the  diseases  and  insects  affecting 
the  turnip  are  also  injurious  to  cabbage  and  have  been  discussed  under 
the  latter.  Club-root  and  black-rot  are  the  most  serious  diseases  and 
turnip  aphis,  root  maggot  and  flea  beetles  are  the  most  injurious  insect 
pests. 

Harvesting. — Turnips  are  harvested  in  the  same  manner  as  beets. 
When  used  as  greens  the  plants  are  thinned  and  the  foliage  is  cooked 
in  the  same  way  as  kale.  Young  turnips  are  often  bunched  as  described 
for  beets,  but  a  large  part  of  the  crop  is  harvested  in  the  fall  and  the  tops 


ROOT  CROPS  249 

are  cut  off  as  they  are  pulled.  The  turnips  arc  then  packed  for  market, 
or  are  stored.  The  methods  of  storage  arc  the  same  as  for  the  other 
root  crops. 

RUTABAGA       • 

The  rutabaga  (Brassica  Napohrassica)  is  similar  in  general  appearance 
to  the  turnip,  but  differs  from  it  in  having  a  denser  root,  which  is  usually 
rounded  or  elongated  instead  of  being  flattened;  the  leaves  are  smooth 
and  covered  with  a  bluish  bloom  whereas  the  leaves  of  turnip  are  hairy 
and  green.  The  roots  arise  from  the  underside  of  the  enlarged  root  as 
well  as  from  the  tap-root  in  the  rutabaga  and  the  crown  is  long  and  leafy 
as  compared  to  the  turnip. 

The  culture  is  practically  the  same  as  that  given  the  turnip,  except 
that  it  requires  4  to  6  weeks  longer  to  mature  and  grows  to  greater  size 
than  most  varieties  of  turnips. 

RADISH 

The  radish  is  a  favorite  crop  of  the  home  gardener  because  it  is  easily 
grown  and  is  ready  for  use  in  3  to  6  weeks  from  time  of  seed  sowing. 
As  a  commercial  crop  it  is  grown  to  a  limited  extent  by  a  large  percentage 
of  market  gardeners,  by  many  greenhouse  vegetable  growers  and  by  truck 
growers  in  a  few  localities,  especially  in  Mississippi  and  a  few  other  south- 
ern states.  It  is  not  a  crop  of  great  commercial  importance,  the  Census 
Report  showing  only  2,014  acres  produced  for  sale  in  the  United  States 
in  1919.  Mississippi  and  California  produced  over  one-fourth  of  the 
acreage.  The  value  was  $437,286  and  the  average  value  per  acre  was 
$217. 

The  radish  is  probably  a  native  of  Europe  and  Asia.  It  has  been  in 
cultivation  for  a  very  long  time,  being  highly  prized  by  the  Egyptians 
at  the  time  of  the  Pharaohs,  and  was  also  known  and  highly  prized  by 
the  ancient  Greeks. 

The  radish  {Raphanus  sativus  Linn.)  is  both  annual  and  biennial, 
and  belongs  to  the  Cruciferae  or  mustard  family.  It  is  related  to  the  cab- 
bage, mustard,  etc.,  but  does  not  belong  to  the  same  genus. 

Soil  Preferences. — The  radish  is  grown  on  all  types  of  soils,  but  a 
light,  friable  soil  is  considered  best.  Since  it  requires  only  a  short  time 
to  grow  a  crop  of  the  varieties  commonly  grown  in  America  it  can  be 
produced  on  types  of  soil  that  are  not  satisfactory  for  other  root  crops. 
For  an  early  crop  sandy,  or  sandy  loam  soils  are  preferred  but  for  sum- 
mer radishes  a  cool,  moist  soil  gives  better  results. 

The  preparation  of  the  soil  should  be  about  the  same  as  described 
for  beets  and  other  root  crops. 

Manures  and  Fertilizers. — Since  this  crop  is  grown  largely  in  early 
spring,  or  in  winter  some  readily  available  fertilizer  should  be  used.     In 


250  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

addition  to  commercial  fertilizer  well-rotted  manure  is  often  used  in 
large  quantities,  but  fresh  manure  should  never  be  used  immediately 
before  planting.  On  any  good  garden  soil  800  to  1,000  pounds  of  a  5-10-5 
fertilizer  should  produce  good  yields  of  radishes.  Very  often  the  fertilizer 
is  applied  for  the  main  crop,  using  sufficient  quantity  to  supply  the  radish 
grown  as  a  companion  crop. 

Planting. — The  radish  is  hardy  and  the  first  planting  is  therefore 
made  very  early  in  the  spring  in  the  North  and  during  the  winter  in  the 
South.  For  a  succession  of  crisp,  tender  roots  several  plantings  should 
be  made  at  intervals  of  about  10  days.  By  the  proper  selection  of 
varieties  radishes  may  be  had  throughout  the  season  and  even  during 
the  winter  since  the  winter  varieties  can  be  kept  in  storage.  However, 
most  of  the  radishes  grown  in  this  country  are  the  quick-maturing  varie- 
ties, which  do  not  thrive  well  in  hot  weather. 

It  is  very  often  grown  as  an  intercrop  or  companion  crop  and  is  planted 
between  the  rows  of  other  vegetables,  so  that  the  spacing  is  determined  to 
a  considerable  extent  by  the  distance  allowed  the  other  crop  or  crops. 
When  planted  alone  the  rows  are  spaced  about  12  to  15  inches  apart 
requiring  10  to  12  pounds  of  seed  to  the  acre.  The  seed  is  sown  by  hand 
for  small  plantings  in  the  home  garden  and  with  seed  drills  in  commercial 
gardens.  It  is  sown  rather  thickly  and  the  plants  thinned  after  they 
become  established.  The  first  thinning  leaves  the  plants  3^^  to  1  inch 
apart  for  the  small  varieties  and  then  the  larger  ones  are  pulled  as  soon 
as  they  reach  edible  size.  Large-growing  varieties,  especially  those 
known  as  "winter  radishes"  are  thinned  to  stand  2  to  4  inches  apart  in 
the  row. 

Experiments  have  shown  an  advantage  in  earliness  and  yield  from  the 
use  of  large  seed  and  many  writers  recommend  the  sifting  out  of  the 
small,  poorly-developed  seed.  This  is  undoubtedly  a  good  practice  with 
much  of  the  commercial  seed,  although  it  is  not  generally  practiced. 
Eliminating  the  small  seed  would  result  in  a  more  nearly  uniform  stand 
and  save  labor  in  thinning. 

Varieties. — Varieties  of  radishes  are  divided  into  classes  with  reference 
to  the  season  of  the  year  in  which  the  crop  is  grown,  and  with  reference  to 
the  shape  of  the  root.  The  former  system  has  the  advantage  of  bringing 
together  those  varieties  which  are  planted  at  the  same  time,  but  it  does 
not  aid  in  identifying  them.  Goff  (56)  suggested  the  following  classifi- 
cation based  on  the  form  of  the  root : 

1.  Root  oblate,  spherical  or  top-shaped. 

A.  Root  wliite. 

B.  Root  yellow,  light  brown  or  grayish. 

C.  Root  red. 

D.  Root  purple. 

E.  Root  black. 


ROOT  CROPS        .  251 

2.  Root  more  or  less  distinctly  oval:  (ovoid). 

A.  Root  white. 

B.  Root  grayish. 

C.  Root  red. 

D.  Root  purple. 

3.  Root  conical  or  cyHndri-conical. 

This  class  has  all  of  the  color  divisions  of  Class  2  and  an  additional  one- 
root  black. 

Another  method  of  classification  based  on  form  is  commonly  used. 
This  is  as  follows : 

1.  Root  flat  or  oblate. 

2.  Root  globular. 

3.  Root  oHve-shaped. 

4.  Root  half -long. 

5.  Root  long. 

These  classes  have  the  various  color  divisions. 

For  practical  purposes  grouping  of  varieties  with  reference  to  the  sea- 
son of  year  in  which  the  crop  is  grown  is  the  most  satisfactory  method. 
They  are  classed  as  spring,  summer  and  winter  varieties.  The  most 
popular  globular  roots  are  Scarlet  Turnip,  Scarlet  Turnip  White  Tipped, 
Scarlet  Globe,  Rapid  Red  and  White  Box;  the  best  known  olive-shaped 
spring  radishes  are  French  Breakfast  and  Ne  Plus  Ultra.  The  long- 
rooted  spring  varieties  are  represented  by  Cincinnati  Market,  Icicle  or 
White  Icicle,  Long  Scarlet  Short  Top  and  Chartier.  Of  the  summer 
varieties  Strasburg,  White  Vienna,  Golden  Globe,  Stuttgart  and  Chartier 
are  well  known.  All  of  these  except  the  Golden  Globe  have  long  roots. 
Among  the  winter  varieties  are  White  Chinese,  China  Rose,  Long  Black 
Spanish,  Round  Black  Spanish  and  Sakurajima.  The  Sakurajima  grows 
to  enormous  size  and  has  solid,  firm  flesh  of  good  flavor. 

Insects. — The  insects  most  commonly  attacking  radish  are  plant 
lice,  cabbage  root-maggot  and  flea  beetles.  Plant  lice  can  be  controlled 
by  spraying  with  one  of  the  tobacco  sprays,  to  which  soap  has  been  added 
as  a  sticker.  Dusting  with  nicotine  dust  as  described  for  the  cabbage 
aphis  would  probably  be  effective.  The  maggot  can  be  kept  in  check 
by  screening  the  bed,  but  this  is  impracticable  except  on  a  very  small 
scale.  Corrosive  sublimate  solution  applied  in  a  stream  along  the  row 
also  aids  in  keeping  the  maggot  under  control.  Two  applications  should 
be  sufficient.  Keeping  the  plants  covered  with  Bordeaux  mixture  will 
protect  them  against  the  flea  beetle,  but  the  treatment  stunts  the  plants, 
therefore  is  not  practicable. 

Harvesting  and  Marketing. — Harvesting  usually  begins  as  soon  as 
the  roots  reach  edible  size.  The  quick-maturing,  spring  varieties  become 
strong  and  pithy  if  not  harvested  soon  after  they  reach    edible    size. 


252  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

The  summer  varieties  remain  edible  much  longer  than  the  spring  varieties. 
The  winter  varieties  remain  edible  for  several  months  if  stored  properly. 

Radishes  are  usually  pulled  by  hand  and  are  tied  in  bunches  of  6 
to  12  for  the  smaller-growing  varieties  and  3  to  6  for  the  larger 
varieties.  After  bunching  they  are  usually  washed  to  remove  the 
soil  and  to  give  them  a  fresh,  bright  appearance.  When  shipped  to 
distant  markets  the  bunches  are  packed  in  baskets,  hampers  or  barrels. 
For  long  distance  shipping,  ice  is  usually  put  in  the  package  as  described 
for  spinach.  Winter  radishes  are  handled  in  much  the  same  way  as 
turnips,  the  tops  being  removed  before  the  roots  are  put  in  storage. 

HORSE-RADISH 

Horse-radish  {Armoracia  rusticana)  is  found  in  many  farm  gardens 
where  it  is  allowed  to  grow  along  the  fences  or  walks.  Commercially  it 
is  grown  principally  in  Missouri  (in  the  vicinity  of  St.  Louis),  Illinois, 
New  York  and  New  Jersey.  Missouri  produced  over  one-third  of  the 
commercial  product  in  1919.  The  total  value  of  the  commercial  product 
in  1919,  according  to  the  Census  Report,  was  $205,767  and  was  produced 
on  922  acres.     The  value  of  the  product  per  acre  was  $223. 

Horse-radish  is  indigenous  to  eastern  Europe  and  is  now  spontaneous 
in  the  United  States.  Both  leaves  and  roots  were  used  as  food  in 
Germany  during  the  middle  ages.  It  was  probably  grown  for  medicinal 
purposes  only  prior  to  the  16th  century. 

It  belongs  to  the  Cruciferae  or  mustard  family  and  is  known 
as  Armoracia  rusticana  and  Cochlearia  armoracia.  It  is  a  hardy 
perennial  which  produces  a  tuft  of  large  leaves  similar  in  appearance  to 
the  leaves  of  dock.  The  flower  stem  grows  to  a  height  of  2  to  3  feet  and 
bears  small  white  flowers  in  panicled  racemes.  Seed  is  produced  but  it 
seldom  matures  and  is  never  used  for  propagation. 

Soil. — A  deep,  rich,  moist,  loamy  soil  is  desired  for  growing  horse- 
radish. On  hard  soil  the  roots  become  "much  branched  and  crooked.  In 
the  vicinity  of  St,  Louis  a  rich  river-bottom  soil  is  used  for  growing  this 
crop. 

In  the  preparation  of  the  soil  it  should  be  deeply  plowed  and  thor- 
oughly pulverized  so  that  long  straight  roots  can  be  grown. 

Manures  and  Fertilizers. — Unless  the  soil  is  already  rich  and  in  good 
physical  condition  it  should  be  heavily  manured,  preferably  with  well- 
rotted  manure.  Some  commercial  fertilizer,  is  often  applied  in  addition 
to  a  heavy  coating  of  manure,  but  the  manure  supplies  enough  nitrogen 
and  potassium,  but  phosphorus  should  be  added.  An  application  of  500 
to  750  pounds  of  acid  phosphate  to  the  acre  should  be  sufficient.  Where 
manure  is  not  used  a  ton  of  high-grade  fertilizer  per  acre  is  none  too  much 
on  a  sandy  loam  soil.  On  such  a  soil  a  5-10-5  mixture  should  give  good 
results,  provided  the  soil  is  well-supplied  with  hunuis. 


ROOT  CROPS  253 

Planting. — The  plant  is  propagated  from  root  cuttings  made  from  the 
side  roots  which  are  trimmed  off  in  preparing  the  roots  for  market.  These 
vary  in  size  from  'jy'i  to  }i  inch  in  diameter  and  from  2  to  8  inches  in  length. 
The  long  cuttings  are  best.  As  these  roots  are  nearly  uniform  in  diameter 
throughout  their  length,  they  are  cut  off  square  at  the  top  and  oblique 
at  the  lower  end  to  denote  which  end  is  to  be  planted  up.  They  are  then 
tied  in  bundles,  packed  in  sand  and  stored  in  a  cool,  moist  place  until 
spring.  The  cuttings  may  be  planted  in  a  deep  furrow  made  with  a  large 
plow,  or  a  dibble  may  be  used  to  make  holes  to  receive  them.  In  either 
case  the  cuttings  are  set  in  a  slanting  position  with  the  square  end  up 
and  about  3  or  4  inches  below  the  surface  of  the  soil.  The  soil  should  be 
well  packed  around  the  cuttings.  The  distance  of  planting  is  about  10  to 
15  inches  apart  in  the  row  with  the  rows  3  to  4  feet  apart.  Planting  is 
usually  done  early  in  the  spring  so  as  to  give  the  crop  a  full  growing 
season. 

Cultivation  and  Care. — The  crop  makes  most  rapid  growth  during  the 
latter  part  of  the  summer,  therefore,  thorough  cultivation  should  be  given 
throughout  the  growing  season. 

In  order  to  secure  large,  straight  roots  some  growers  remove  the  side 
roots  early  in  the  season.  This  is  done  by  removing  the  soil  and  stripping 
off  the  side  roots  from  the  upper  part  of  the  main  root.  The  soil  is  then 
replaced.  This  treatment  results  in  the  production  of  large,  compact 
roots,  but  unless  the  work  is  carefully  done  serious  injury  may  follow. 
The  earlier  in  the  season  the  trimming  is  done  the  less  check  there  is  to 
growth.  It  is  claimed  by  some  that  a  larger  yield  is  secured  when  the 
roots  are  trimmed  than  when  they  are  allowed  to  grow  without  being 
disturbed.  Certainly  trimming  results  in  a  large  percentage  of  straight 
roots  of  good  size. 

Harvesting. — The  roots  are  hardy  and  may  be  left  in  the  ground  all 
winter,  but  it  is  better  to  dig  them  in  the  fall  and  store  them  so  that  they 
will  be  available  when  wanted.  The  roots  are  plowed  out,  the  tops  and 
side  roots  removed  and  the  marketable  product  sold,  or  stored.  Since 
the  horee-radish  is  likely  to  become  a  bad  weed  it  is  important  to  remove 
all  of  the  roots,  in  harvesting.  The  roots  are  washed  and  packed  in 
barrels  for  shipping  to  market.  For  special  trade  they  are  sometimes  tied 
in  bunches  of  6  or  8  roots.  Only  the  large,  straight  roots  bring  a  good 
price  on  the  market. 

The  roots  are  stored  in  a  cool,  moist  cellar  or  storage  house.  Care 
must  be  taken  to  prevent  the  roots  from  becoming  withered. 

TURNIP-ROOTED  CHERVIL 

Turnip-rooted  chervil  (Chaerophyllum  bulbosiun  Linn.)  is  a  small- 
rooted  plant,  native  of  Europe  and  Asia.  It  is  a  biennial,  belonging  to 
the  Umbelliferae  family  and  is  of  recent  culture.     The  root  is  swollen, 


254  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

much  like  a  short  carrot  but  smaller,  dark  gray  in  color  with  yellowish- 
white  flesh. 

In  Europe  the  seed  is  usually  sown  in  autumn  since  it  docs  not 
germinate  well  if  kept  over  winter  in  the  ordinary  manner.  Spring  plant- 
ing may  be  followed  if  care  is  taken  to  stratify  the  seed  in  sand.  If  this 
is  done  the  seeds  germinate  immediately  after  they  are  sown.  The 
crop  gets  its  growth  in  a  relatively  shorttimc,  but  it  improves  in  quality  if 
left  in  the  ground  after  the  leaves  wither  and  die.  The  roots  may  be 
taken  up  and  stored  if  the  land  is  needed  for  another  crop.  They  keep 
well  through  the  winter  if  properly  stored. 

The  roots  are  eaten  boiled  and  they  have  a  sweet,  aromatic  flavor. 
This  plant  is  little  known  in  America. 

SKIRRET 

Skirret  {Slum  Sisanun  Linn.)  is  a  hardy  perennial  of  the  Umbellifcrae 
family,  although  it  is  grown  as  an  annual.  The  plant  produces  numerous 
swollen  roots,  forming  a  bunch  from  the  crown.  The  roots  are  grayish- 
white  in  color  with  firm  white  flesh. 

It  may  be  propagated  from  seeds,  offsets,  or  division  of  the  roots. 
The  seed  is  often  sown  in  a  prepared  bed  and  the  seedKngs  transplanted  to 
the  permanent  bed  when  four  or  five  leaves  have  developed.  Plants 
propagated  from  offsets,  and  division  of  the  roots  are  treated  like  those 
raised  from  seed.  Skirret  is  very  hardy  and  the  roots  may  be  left  in  the 
ground  throughout  the  winter. 

The  roots  are  tender  and  have  a  sweet  taste.  They  are  used  in  the 
same  manner  as  salsify. 

CELERIAC 

Celeriac  or  turnip-rooted  celery  {Apiiim  graveolens  Linn,  var  ra'paceum 
DC.)  is  grown  for  its  thick,  tuberous  base,  which  is  used  as  a  salad  or  as  a 
cooked  vegetable.  It  has  the  flavor  of  celery  and  is  popular  in  Europe  but 
is  little  grown  in  America.  The  plant  does  not  develop  as  much  foliage 
as  celery. 

Seed  is  usually  sown  in  a  greenhouse  or  hotbed  for  an  early  crop  and  in 
a  well-prepared  outdoor  bed  for  a  late  crop.  The  plants  are  handled  exactly 
like  celery  except  that  they  are  not  blanched  since  the  leaves  are  not  eaten. 
European  seedsmen  list  several  varieties  of  celeriac.  Giant  Prague, 
Apple  and  Early  Paris  probably  are  the  most  popular.  In  America  the 
Giant  Prague  is  the  most  common  and  many  seedsmen  list  no  other 
variety. 


CHAPTER  XXII 
BULB  CROPS 


Onion 

Leek 

Garlic 


Shallot 

CiBOUL  (ciboule)  or  Welch  Onion 

Chive 


All  of  the  bulb  crops  are  hardy  and  thrive  best  in  relatively  cool 
growing  seasons.  When  grown  in  the  South  they  are  usually  planted 
in  fall,  or  winter  and  harvested  in  spring,  or  early  summer.  The 
onion  is  the  only  member  of  this  group  grown  to  any  great  extent  in 
this  country.  The  other  crops  are  grown  chiefly  for  sale  in  large  cities 
where  there  is  a  considerable  foreign  population,  since  they  are  not 
relished  by  Americans. 

All  of  these  crops  belong  to  the  same  genus,  Allium,  of  the  family 
Lilaceae,  and  their  cultural  requirements  are  very  similar. 

ONION 

The  onion  is  by  far  the  most  important  of  the  bulb  crops  and  is 
exceeded  in  value  only  by  potatoes,  sweet  potatoes,  tomatoes  and 
cabbage  of  the  vegetable  crops  grown  in  the  United  States.  In  1919  the 
value  of  the  commercial  crop  of  dry  onions  in  the  United  States  was 
$21,387,221.  Nearly  two-thirds  of  the  crop  was  produced  in  6  states 
as  shown  in  Table  XXX. 

T.\BLE  XXX. — Acreage  and  Value  of  Onions  in  the  Six  Largest  Producing 
States  in  1919 


State 

Acreage 

Value 

California 

New  York '.  . 

8,512 
7,500 
6,253 
4,411 
5,713 
4,191 

$2,818,194 
2,804,153 

Texas 

2,654,047 
2,299,939 

Ohio. ... 

2,134,346 

Indiana 

1  067,866 

In  addition  to  the  dry  bulb  crop  thousands  of  gardeners   produce 
small  quantities  of  green  onions  for  bunching.     These  are  grown  on  such 

255 


256  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

a  small  scale  by  most  producers  that  they  arc  not  included  in  the  census 
report. 

History  and  Taxonomy. — The  onion  is  probably  a  native  of  Asia, 
perhaps  from  Palestine  to  India.  It  has  been  in  cultivation  and  used 
as  a  food  from  the  earliest  period  of  history.  It  is  mentioned  in  the  Bible 
as  one  of  the  things  for  which  the  Israelites  longed  in  the  wilderness. 
It  is  mentioned  as  being  cultivated  in  America  as  early  as  1629. 

The  onion  belongs  to  the  genus  Allium  which  contains  about  300 
species  widely  distributed  in  northern  temperate  regions,  biennials  and 
perennials,  mostly  bulbous.  Manj^  species  are  native  to  North  America. 
Some  of  the  wild  species  produce  bulbels  instead  of  seed  in  the  flower 
cluster,  as  does  the  tree  onion.  All  but  a  few  of  the  plants  of  this  genus 
have  the  characteristic  onion  odor  and  flavor. 

Soil  Preferences. — Onions  are  grown  on  nearly  all  types  of  soils  from 
the  sandy  loams  and  mucks  to  heavy  clays.  The  clays  are  not  satis- 
factory unless  well  supplied  with  humus  to  lighten  them.  The  greatest 
difficulty  encountered  in  growing  onions  on  clay  is  the  tendency  of  this 
type  of  soil  to  run  together  and  bake  after  hard  rains.  This  is  especially 
injurious  after  the  seed  has  been  sown  and  before  the  plants  have  attained 
sufficient  size  to  permit  of  cultivation.  Sandy  loam  soils,  when  well 
supplied  with  humus  and  heavily  fertilized,  are  satisfactory  for  onion 
growing,  especially  for  the  early  crop.  Silty  and  silty  loam  soils  are  used 
in  growing  Bermuda  onions  in  Texas  and  the  common  onion  in  Massa- 
chusetts. These  are  rich,  river  bottom  soils  and  are  quite  satisfactory, 
especially  when  there  is  a  considerable  amount  of  sand  present.  Muck 
soils  are  considered  the  very  best  type  for  the  production  of  bulb  onions 
in  the  North.  A  very  large  part  of  the  dry  bulb  crop  grown  in  New  York, 
Ohio,  Indiana,  Michigan  and  California  is  produced  on  muck.  Muck 
soils  are  almost  ideal  in  texture  so  that  they  are  easily  prepared  and 
cultivated.  They  are  organic  in  nature,  rich  in  nitrogen  and  have  a  high 
water-holding  capacity. 

Soils  for  onion  production  should  be  thoroughly  prepared.  The  seed 
bed  should  be  thoroughly  pulverized  and  have  a  smooth  surface.  It  is  a 
common  practice  to  drag  or  roll  the  land  just  prior  to  planting  and  this  is 
especially  important  for  muck  soils. 

Manures  and  Fertilizers. — Manure  is  important  in  growing  onions 
on  mineral  soils,  especially  those  poor  in  humus,  but  on  muck  soils 
the  humus  is  not  necessary  and  nitrogen,  phosphorus  and  potash  can  be 
supplied  more  economically  in  chemical  fertilizers.  Where  manure  is 
used  it  is  advisable  to  apply  it  to  the  crop  preceding  onions,  especially 
if  it  is  not  well  rotted.  Fresh  manure  usually  contains  weed  seeds,  and, 
unless  plowed  under,  it  interferes  with  planting  and  cultivating.  Even 
where  manure  is  used  on  mineral  soils  it  is  desirable  to  apply  some  com- 
mercial fertilizer,  especially  phosphorus.     Some  readily  available  nitro- 


BULB  CROPS  257 

gen  is  also  desirable  to  give  the  crop  a  start  before  the  nitrogen  in  the 
manure  or  in  the  soil  becomes  available.  When  manure  is  used  an  appli- 
cation of  15  to  20  tons  per  acre  should  be  sufficient.  Fresh  manure,  if 
used,  should  be  turned  under  in  the  fall  or  as  early  in  the  spring  as  possi- 
ble. Well-rotted  manure  might  be  applied  to  the  surface  after  the  land 
is  plowed  but  before  it  is  disked  and  harrowed.  In  addition  to  the 
manure,  an  application  of  500  pounds  of  acid  phosphate  and  100  to  150 
pounds  of  nitrate  of  soda  per  acre  is  desirable  on  most  mineral  soils. 
Where  manure  is  not  used  a  complete  fertilizer,  containing  2  to  4  per 
cent  nitrogen,  8  per  cent  phosphoric  acid  and  4  per  cent  potash  applied 
at  the  rate  of  1,000  to  1,500  pounds  to  the  acre  is  recommended.  Of 
course,  the  formula  and  amount  should  be  varied  according  to  the  soil 
needs.  In  the  Connecticut  Valley  of  Massachusetts  growers  appl}^  about 
3,000  pounds  of  high-grade  fertilizer  to  the  acre.  This  is  a  very  heavy 
application  and  it  is  doubtful  if  the  crop  can  utilize  it. 

On  a  good  tj^pe  of  muck  soil,  potash  is  the  main  limiting  element 
and  many  onion  growers  use  nothing  but  200  to  400  pounds  per  acre 
of  muriate  or  sulphate  of  potash.  Phosphorus,  however,  usually  increases 
the  yield  and  improves  the  keeping  quality.  Nitrogen  usually  does  not 
give  sufficient  increase  to  pay  for  the  cost,  and  in  some  instances,  it 
actually  decreases  the  yield  of  marketable  onions.  This  is  especially 
true  with  a  slowly  available  form  of  nitrogen,  which  stimulates  foliage 
growth  late  in  the  season  when  the  bulbs  should  be  maturing.  Connor 
and  Abbot  (28)  give  results  of  eight  experiments  with  onions  on  muck 
soil  in  Indiana,  which  indicate  the  great  importance  of  potash.  A  basic 
fertilizer  containing  4  per  cent  nitrogen  from  dried  blood,  8  per  cent  phos- 
phoric acid  from  acid  phosphate  and  10  per  cent  potash  from  sulphate 
of  potash  was  applied  at  the  rate  of  1,000  pounds  per  acre.  The  soils 
were  fairly  productive  as  is  shown  by  the  average  yield  of  404.4  bushels 
of  onions  per  acre  on  the  unfertilized  plats.  It  is  stated  that  this  pro- 
ductiveness in  most  cases,  was  due  to  previous  treatments,  but  in  some 
instances  the  soil  was  virgin.  The  average  yields  of  onions  in  bushels 
per  acre  were  404.4  for  the  unfertilized  plats,  534.7  on  the  plats  receiving  a 
4-8-10  mixture,  527.2  on  the  0-8-10  plats,  488.4  on  the  4-0-10  plats  and 
453.4  on  the  plats  fertilized  with  a  4-8-0  mixture.  The  4  per  cent  nitro- 
gen increased  the  yield  only  7.5  bushels  per  acre  which  was  not  enough  to 
pay  for  the  material.  Phosphorus  and  potash  increased  the  yield  122.8 
bushels,  nitrogen  and  potash  84  bushels  and  nitrogen  and  phosphorus 
49  bushels  over  the  unfertilized  plats. 

In  a  more  elaborate  experiment  conducted  by  the  U.  S.  Department 
of  Agriculture  in  cooperation  with  the  Indiana  Experiment  Station  in 
Northern  Indiana  similar  results  were  secured.  The  land  on  which  this 
experiment  was  conducted  had  been  in  cultivation  only  2  or  3  years 
and  had  grown  nothing  but  corn,  which  was  fertilized  with  100  pounds  of 


258 


VEGETABLE  CROPS 


inuriatc  of  potash  per  acre.     Results  for  3  years,  1915  to  1917  have  been 
reported  by  Beattie  (10).     The  results  are  given  in  Table  XXXI. 

T.\BLE  XXXI. — SrM.\rAKY  of  Onion  Fertilizer  Expehimkxt  at  North  Liberty, 
Indiana,  1915,   1917 


Kind  of  fertilizer 


Nitrate  of  soda 

Tankage 

Acid  phosphate,  14  per  cent 

Muriate  of  potash 

Muriate  of  potash 

Sulphate  of  potash 


Manure 

Limestone 

Acid  phosphate,  14  per  cent. 

Muriate  of  potash 

Acid  phosphate,  14  per  cent . 

Muriate  of  potash 

None 


Amount  per 

Average  yield 

acre,  lb. 

per  acre,  bu. 

200 1 

200] 

220.8 

457 

365.3 

200 

467.9 

400 

449  9 

200 

426.2 

.30,000 

490.7 

2,000 

377.4 

4571 

200  j 

470.2 

4571 

400  f 

477.9 

,3.56.7 

The  poor  yields  on  the  nitrogen  plats  are  accounted  for  mainly  by 
the  fact  that  these  were  located  on  the  edge  of  the  area  and  suffered  severely 
from  wind  injury.  However,  it  was  evident  throughout  that  nitrogen  was 
not  needed.  Attention  is  called  to  the  fact  that  sulphate  of  potash  did 
not  give  as  good  results  as  muriate.  This  difference  is  not  significant 
in  itself  but  similar  results  are  shown  in  unpublished  data  from  experi- 
ments carried  on  in  New  Jersey  for  4  years  and  in  New  York  for  2  years. 
The  manure  produced  the  highest  yield,  but  the  main  difference  was  in 
the  first  year  when  the  soil  was  quite  new  and  in  need  of  inoculation. 
(See  Chapter  III.) 

From  a  study  of  experimental  data  it  would  seem  that  an  application 
of  500  pounds  of  acid  phosphate  and  200  to  400  pounds  of  muriate  of 
potash  per  acre  is  sufficient  for  onions  on  muck  soil  under  normal  con- 
ditions. A  light  apphcation  of  nitrate  of  soda  (100  pounds  per  acre) 
may  be  advisable  to  give  the  onions  a  start  in  a  cool  season,  or  to  stimulate 
them  when  growth  has  been  checked  by  insects,  diseases  or  any  other 
unfavorable  conditions. 

Propagation. — The  onion  is  propagated  by  seed  sown  where  the  crop 
is  to  mature;  by  seed  sown  in  a  greenhouse,  hotbed,  or  in  an  outdoor  seed 
bed;  by  sets  grown  from  seed  sown  the  year  previous;  by  top  sets,  which 
are  produced  in  the  flower  cluster  of  the  Egyptian  or  tree  onion;  and  by 
bottom  sets  in  the  multiplier  or  potato  onion.     The  multipher  seldom 


BULB  CROl'S 


259 


produces  flowers  and  seeds.  The  small  bulb  or  set  grows  into  a  large  one 
which  again  breaks  up  into  small  ones. 

A  large  part  of  the  dry  bulb  onion  crop  produced  in  the  United  States 
is  grown  from  seed  sown  where  the  crop  is  to  mature.  In  the  South  this 
method  is  not  used  because  the  onions  mature  before  they  reach  market- 
able size. 

Seedlings  are  used  for  the  production  of  early  onions  to  some  extent 
by  market  gardeners  and  almost  exclusively  by  growers  of  Bermuda 
onions  in  Texas  and  of  the  Valencia  or  Denia  and  other  large  foreign 
onions  in  various  sections.  The  use  of  seedlings  is  not  practicable  except 
in  regions  where  cheap  labor  can  be  secured,  as  in  the  Bermuda  onion 
regions  of  Texas  where  Mexicans  are  employed. 

Sets  are  used  for  the  production  of  green  bunching  onions;  for  the 
production  of  an  early  crop  of  dry  bulbs  for  market  in  the  North;  to  a 
considerable  extent,  for  bulbs  for  home  use  in  nearly  all  sections  of  the 
country  and  in  growing  common  varieties  for  home  use  and  for  market  in 
the  South.  Onion  sets  '^■2  to  %  inch  in  diameter  are  considered  the  most 
desirable  size.  If  they  are  very  small  they  produce  weak  plants  and  if 
above  ^^  inch  they  are  likely  to  send  up  seed  stalks  before  the  onions 
reach  marketable  size.  Sets  usually  produce  a  larger  yield  than  seeds  on 
ordinary  upland  soil,  but  on  muck  soil  it  is  doubtful  if  this  is  true. 
Lloyd  (88)  has  reported  results  of  experiments  conducted  at  the 
Illinois  Experiment  Station  on  a  brown  silt  loam  soil.  In  these 
experiments  yields  from  seeds  and  sets  were  compared  for  Yellow  Globe 
and  Prizetaker  varieties  covering  a  period  of  6  years.  A  summary  of 
the  results  from  these  experiments  is  given  in  Table  XXXIL 

Table  XXXII. — Comparison  of  Yields,  Time  Required  to  Mature  and  Cost  of 
Growing  from  Seeds  and  Sets  of  Two  Varieties  of  Onions 

(Data  from  111.  Bull.  175) 


Variety 

Yield  per 

acre,  bu. 

Number  days  to  mature 

Cost  of  growing  per  acre 

Seed 

Sets 

Seed 

Sets 

Seeds 

Sets 

Yellow  globe.  .  . 
Prizetaker* 

345.74 
373.47 

459.02 
610.99 

137 
137 

112 
114 

101.77 
$107.17 

154.69 
$126.31 

*  Prizetaker  comparison  for  3  years  only. 


The  cost  of  growing  an  acre  of  onions  was  greater  from  sets  than  from 
seeds,  due  to  the  increased  cost  of  the  sets  themselves.  The  amount  of 
labor  for  growing  the  crop  was  328.60  hours  for  seed  and  303.49  hours 
for  sets.  The  greater  amount  of  labor  required  from  onions  grown  from 
seed  was  largely  in  the  tillage,  and  in  weeding  and  thinning.  The  gross 
returns  and  profits  were  greater  from  the  onions  grown  from  sets  than  those 


260 


VEGETABLE  CROPS 


produced  from  seed  due  to  the  larger  yield  and  higher  price  received  for 
the  former.  The  higher  price  was  due  to  earlier  maturity  and  a  larger 
percentage  of  large  onions. 

Planting. — ^The  best  time  for  planting  depends  upon  the  locality,  the 
type  of  onions  and  the  method  of  propagation  used.  In  the  North  sets 
for  green  onions,  or  for  dry  bulbs  are  usually  planted  as  early  in  the  spring 
as  the  soil  can  be  prepared,  since  light  freezes  do  not  injure  them.  When 
the  multiplier  onion  Ls  used  the  sets  are  usually  planted  in  the  fall.  Seeds 
of  the  common  onion,  when  planted  where  the  crop  is  to  mature,  are  sown 
as  soon  as  hard  frosts  are  over  in  the  spring  in  regions  where  severe  freezes 
occur.  In  the  South  the  onion  is  grown  as  a  winter  crop  and  seeds,  sets 
and  seedhngs  are  planted  in  fall  or  winter  depending  upon  the  locality  and 
the  type  of  onion  grown.  In  Texas  the  Bermuda  onion  is  grown  from  seed- 
lings produced  in  an  outdoor  seed  bed,  where  the  seeds  are  sown  in  October. 
The  plants  are  set  out  usually  in  December. 

Early  planting  is  important  in  most  all  regions  where  spring  planting 
is  practiced.  LWd  (88)  has  shown  that  at  Urbana,  IlHnois,  on  a  brown 
silt  loam  soil,  the  earlier  the  crop  is  planted  the  higher  the  yield,  other 
factors  being  the  same.  He  has  also  shown  that  there  is  not  a  close  corre- 
lation between  date  of  planting  and  time  of  maturity.  Results  of  6  years' 
experiments  reported  by  Lloyd  are  given  in  Table  XXXIII. 

Table  XXXIII. — Yields  of  Onions  Planted  at  Different  Dates,   Average 
Number  of  Days  from  Planting  to  Maturity,  and  Value  of  Crop  per 

Acre 

(Data  from  IW.  Bull.  175) 


Average  date  of 
planting 

Average  yield  bushels  per  acre 

Average  num- 
ber of  days 
to  maturity 

Value  of  crops 

Total 

Large  bulbs 

Small  bulbs 

March  27 

345.74 
317.75 
219.33 

218.78 

323.82 
295.93 
198.21 
174.29 

21.92 
21.82 
21.12 
44.49 

137 
124 
113 
110 

$243.92 

April  13         

219.95 

April  28     

153.41 

May  11   

153 . 69 

Examination  of  the  above  table  shows  that  the  yields  from  the  first 
two  plantings  were  much  higher  than  from  the  last  two,  also  that  the  per- 
centage of  large  bulbs  was  greater  from  the  early  plantings.  The  value 
of  the  crop  was  considerably  greater  from  the  first  two  plantings  than 
from  the  last  two,  due  to  greater  yield,  higher  percentage  of  large  bulbs 
and  to  slightly  earlier  maturity. 

Methods  of  planting  are  very  much  the  same  in  the  various  regions. 
Seed  is  sown  with  a  drill  when  the  crop  is  grown  commercially  and  4  to 
6  pounds  are  used  to  the  acre  if  sown  where  the  onions  arc  to  mature. 
Gang  planters  which  sow  4  or  more  rows  at  a  time  are  often  used  where 


BULB  CROPS 


261 


large  acreages  are  planted.  These  are  drawn  by  a  horse,  or  a  small 
tractor.  Bermuda  onion  seed  is  sown  in  beds  and  3)^  to  4  pounds  of 
seed  are  planted  for  each  acre  of  bulbs  to  be  grown.  This  allows  for 
discarding  the  weak  plants.  Onion  sets  are  commonly  planted  by  hand 
and  a  large  amount  of  labor  is  required.  Ten  to  fifteen  bushels  of  sets  are 
usually  planted.  For  bunching  onions  the  sets  arc  planted  an  inch  or 
two  apart  and  for  bulbs  they  are  set  about  3  inches  apart.  Seedlings  are 
set  3  to  4  inches  apart  for  common  onions  and  for  the  Bermuda  varieties. 
The  plants  are  usually  cut  back  to  reduce  the  top  before  setting.  Plant- 
ing is  done  by  hand. 

The  usual  distance  between  rows  is  about  14  inches  for  hand  culti- 
vation, the  method  most  commonly  used,  and  18  to  24  inches  for  horse 
cultivation.  However,  a  method  of  planting  in  double  rows,  6  to  8 
inches  apart  with  16-inch  spaces  between  the  sets  of  rows,  is  practiced  to 
some  extent  in  Texas.  Horse  cultivation  is  given  between  the  sets  of 
double  rows. 

Thinning. — The  practice  of  sowing  onion  seed  thickly  and  then  thin- 
ning the  seedlings  to  the  desired  distance  was  practiced  quite  commonly 
15  to  20  years  ago.  At  the  present  time  the  tendency  is  to  sow  the 
seed  more  thinly  and  dispense  with  thinning  since  this  is  is  an  expensive 
operation.  Results  of  experiments  on  a  brown  silt  loam  soil  in  Illinois 
(88)  show  that  thinning  does  not  pay  under  average  conditions.  Table 
XXXIV  gives  the  results  of  these  experiments  covering  4  years  1908, 
1909,  1911  and  1912. 

Table  XXXIV. — Comparison  of  Yields  and  Cost  of  CIuowing  Onions  Thinned 
AND  Not  Thinned 

(Data  from  U\.  Bull.  175) 


Average  yield,  bu.  per  acre 

Average  cost  of  grow- 
ing and  harvesting 
per  acre  * 

Total 

Large 

Small 

Thinned 

338.34           308.13 
396.83     1       309.89 

30.20 
86.94 

$52.89 

45.23 

*  Figures    include    cost  of  weeding,  thinning  and  harvesting  oidy  since  cost  of 
planting  and  cultivating  were  the  same. 


The  figures  in  the  above  table  show  that  the  total  yield  of  onions  was 
greater  in  the  unthinned  plat  and  while  the  percentage  of  large  bulbs 
was  greater  on  the  thinned  plat  the  actual  yield  of  these  bulbs  was  nearly 
the  same  on  the  two  plats. 

On  muck  soil  thinning  is  of  less  importance  than  on  mineral  soils 
since  muck  is  very  light  and  there  is  no  danger  of  producing  deformed 
bulbs  even  where  they  are  crowded.     Large  yields  are  secured  where  the 


262  .  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

onions  arc  grown  quite  thickly  and  since  large  size  is  of  no  importance  for 
common  onions  thinning  is  seldom  justifiable. 

Cultivation  and  Weeding. — To  produce  a  good  crop  of  onions  it  is 
essential  that  the  weeds  be  kept  under  control  and  that  a  surface  mulch 
be  maintained  to  conserve  moisture.  The  onion  has  a  very  sparse  root 
system  and  proper  cultivation  conserves  moisture  even  when  weeds 
are  eliminated.     (See  Chapter  X.) 

Cultivation  usually  begins  as  soon  as  the  plants  appear  above  the 
surface  of  the  soil  and  continues  until  the  tops  seriously  interfere  with 
the  work.  Hand  cultivation,  with  shove  hoes,  wheel  hoes  and  onion 
weeders,  is  practiced  to  a  very  large  extent.  Onion  weeders  are  used 
by  some  growers  to  help  keep  the  weeds  under  control  between  the  plants 
in  the  rows.  These  are  quite  satisfactory  on  very  light  soils  when  the 
plants  are  small  but  after  the  tops  have  straightened  up.  If  they  arc 
used  before  the  tops  have  straightened  up  many  of  the  plants  are  pulled 
out.  To  do  good  work,  weeders  must  be  used  when  the  weeds  are  very 
small  and  before  a  hard  crust  is  formed  on  the  soil.  Some  growers  have 
tried  weeders  and  discarded  them  on  account  of  apparent  injury  to  the 
plants  and  unsatisfactory  weed  control.  In  man}^  cases  the  injury  was 
not  as  serious  as  it  appeared  immediately  after  the  weeder  was  used. 
In  other  instances  the  weeds  were  allowed  to  get  too  large  before  the 
weeder  was  used.  Judicious  use  of  the  weeder  on  a  loose  soil  will  reduce 
the  expense  of  hand  weeding.  Cultivation  between  the  rows  is  practiced 
to  keep  down  weeds  and  to  maintain  a  surface  mulch.  For  weed  destruc- 
tion shove  hoes  and  the  blade  attachments  of  wheel  hoes  are  more  satis- 
factory than  the  teeth  or  shovel  attachments  used  on  hand  cultivators. 

Hand  weeding  is  the  most  laborious  and  most  expensive  operation 
connected  with  growing  the  crop.  Even  where  the  onion  weeder  is 
used  hand  weeding  is  necessary.  This  is  often  done  by  women  and 
children  who  crawl  along  the  rows  and  remove  all  the  weeds  between  the 
plants  in  the  row.  In  wet  weather  it  is  necessary  to  remove  the  weeds 
from  the  field  to  prevent  them  from  taking  root  after  being  pulled.  In 
a  study  of  onion  growing  in  Massachusetts  it  was  found  (Mass.  Bull. 
169)  that  it  required  on  an  average  21  days'  labor  per  acre  to  weed  onions. 
In  addition  5  days  were  required  for  cultivating  and  4  daysf or  shove  hoeing. 

Varieties. — There  are  two  general  types  of  onions  grown  in  America 
for  use  as  dry  bulbs.  They  are  usually  designated  as  the  "American" 
and  the  "foreign"  or  "European"  types.  In  general  the  American 
onions  produce  bulbs  of  smaller  size,  denser  texture,  stronger  flavor  and 
better  keeping  quality.  Three  distinct  colors  of  American  onions  are 
recognized,  red,  white  and  yellow.  Probably  75  per  cent  of  the  bulb  crop 
consists  of  yellow  varieties.  Onions  vary  in  shape  from  oblate  to 
globular,  the  latter  being  preferred  on  the  market.  The  most  important 
varieties  of  yellow   onions  are  Yellow  Globe,  Yellow  Globe  Danvers, 


BULB  CROPS  '  263 

Danveis,  Southport  Yellow  Globe  and  Ohio  Yellow  Globe.  Of  the  red 
varieties,  Southport  Red  Globe  and  Red  Weathersfield  are  the  best 
known.  Southport  White  Globe,  White  Pearl,  Silverskin  and  White 
Queen  are  the  most  popular  white  varieties. 

Of  the  foreign  onions  the  Bermuda  is  the  most  popular,  thousands 
of  acres  of  land  being  devoted  to  this  crop  in  Texas.  Crystal  Wax, 
White  Bermuda  (also  called  Yellow  Bermuda)  and  Red  Bermuda  are  the 
varieties  grown.  The  White  Bermuda  which  is  really  yellow  in  color 
is  the  most  popular  variety  and  the  Red  Bermuda  the  least  popular. 
Denia  (also  known  as  Valencia)  is  grown  to  some  extent  in  the  South- 
west and  in  California,  but  most  of  those  consumed  in  this  country  are 
imported  irom  Spain.  The  Denia  is  grown  by  the  transplanting  method 
and  the  bulbs  grow  to  large  size,  3  to  4  inches  in  diameter.  The  bulb 
is  globular.  Prizetaker,  another  foreign  variety,  is  somewhat  similar  to 
the  Denia,  a  httle  stronger  in  flavor  though  milder  than  any  of  the 
American  varieties.  A  type  of  onion  grown  in  the  vicinity  of  New  Orleans 
known  as  Creole  probably  belongs  to  the  ''foreign"  group. 

In  addition  to  the  varieties  and  types  mentioned  White  Multiplier, 
and  Yellow  Multiplier  (potato  onion)  and  the  Egyptian  or  Perennial 
Tree  onion  are  grown  for  early  bunching  onions.     These  are  very  hardy. 

Onion  Smut. — Onion  smut  (Urocystis  cepulae)  is  probably  the  most 
destructive  disease  of  onions.  It  is  of  importance  in  practically  all 
onion-growing  regions  of  the  North,  but  has  not  appeared  in  the  onion- 
growing  regions  of  Texas  and  Louisiana.  Walker  and  Jones  (172)  explain 
this  on  the  basis  of  difference  in  soil  temperature.  Results  of  experi- 
ments conducted  by  them  at  the  University  of  Wisconsin  show  clearly 
the  relation  between  the  growth  of  the  organism  and  soil  temperature. 
They  give  the  following  summary  of  their  results: 

The  relation  of  soil  temperature  to  the  development  of  the  host  and  the  para- 
site was  studied  by  growing  plants  in  pots  held  experimentally  at  a  series  of 
constant  soil  temperatures  in  the  special  apparatus  known  as  the  Wisconsin 
soil  temperature  tank. 

Seed  germination  and  growth  took  place  over  a  range  of  soil  temperature 
from  10  to  30  degrees  C.  Most  rapid  seed  germination  and  development  of  tops 
occurred  at  soil  temperatures  of  20  to  25  degrees,  while  as  a  rule  the  best  develop- 
ment of  roots  occurred  below  20  degrees. 

A  high  percentage  of  plants  grown  on  smutted  soil  were  infected  at  soil 
temperatures  ranging  from  10  to  25  degrees  C.  A  decided  reduction  in  infection 
was  noted  at  about  27  degrees,  and  complete  freedom  from  the  disease  resulted 
at  29  degrees.  In  these  experiments  all  plants  were  under  uniform  conditions 
of  air  temperture,  which  ranged  from  15  to  20  degrees. 

The  relation  of  variations  in  air  temperature  to  the  development  of  the  disease 
was  then  studied. 

Exposure  of  plants  bearing  incipient  infections  of  the  fungus  in  the  aerial 
parts  to  an  air  and  soil  temperature  of  30  to  33  degrees  C.  so  disturbed  the 


264  •  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

relations  between  parasite  and  host  as  to  preclude  any  further  development 
of  the  disease.  This  was  shown  by  growing  plants  at  a  temperature  favorable 
for  infection  (15  to  20  degrees).  Then,  just  as  the  pustules  of  the  disease 
were  beginning  to  appear  (tenth  to  twelfth  day),  the  plants  were  removed  to  a 
room  held  at  30  to  33  degrees.  This  stimulated  top  growth  for  a  few  days,  which 
was  followed  by  a  decided  checking  of  the  plants  and  death  after  three  or  four 
weeks.  However,  if  after  12  to  15  days  at  the  high  temperature,  the  ])lants  were 
returned  to  the  original  temperature  (15  to  20  degrees),  they  grew  normally,  but 
the  fungus  in  nearly  all  cases  failed  to  produce  spores,  and  the  plants  remained 
free  from  further  invasion. 

Experiments  were  then  performed  in  which  seedlings  were  grown  on  infested 
soil  held  at  20  to  25  degrees,  and  30  degrees  C.  with  a  uniform  air  temperature  of 
30  to  33  degrees.  A  high  percentage  of  infection  resulted  at  soil  temperatures  of 
20  to  25  degrees,  but  none  at  30  degrees,  showing  that  high  air  temperature  alone 
is  insufficient  to  check  the  development  of  the  disease.  It  appears  probable 
that  the  failure  of  the  fungus  to  complete  its  development  in  the  case  described 
above  (where  the  plants  after  infection  were  exposed  to  an  air  and  soil  temperature 
of  30  to  33  degrees)  was  brought  about  at  least  in  part  by  some  marked  distur- 
bance of  the  metabolism  of  the  host  and  not  simply  by  the  direct  effect  of  the 
high  air  temperature  upon  the  fungus  in  the  aerial  parts  of  the  seedling. 

Comparison  between  the  development  of  the  disease  in  plants  grown  at  15  to 
20  degrees  and  at  24  to  28  degrees  C.  (air  and  soil)  was  made.  A  high  percentage 
of  cotyledon  infection  occurred  in  both  cases.  At  the  lower  temperature  the 
disease  proceeded  as  usual  to  the  infection  of  the  true  leaves.  At  the  higher  tem- 
perature, however,  the  plants  tended  to  outgrow  the  disease,  this  being  associated 
with  a  more  rapid  rate  of  top  development  which  apparently  enabled  the  plants 
to  slough  off  the  smutted  cotyledons  before  infection  of  the  first  true  leaf  occurred. 

The  foregoing  conclusions  as  to  the  dominant  influence  of  soil  temperature 
upon  onion  smut  infection,  while  primarily  based  on  greenhouse  experiments, 
have  been  found  to  accord  well  with  field  developments. 

Successive  out-of-door  plantings  at  Madison,  Wis.,  made  in  inoculated  soil 
during  the  growing  season,  resulted  in  a  gradual  reduction  of  infection  as  the 
season  advanced  and  the  soil  temperature  rose.  Complete  freedom  from  smut 
was  attained  when  the  daily  mean  soil  temperature  at  1  to  2  inches  depth  remained 
at  or  slightly  above  29  degrees  C.  for  2  to  3  weeks.  There  was  also  a  tendency, 
as  the  temperature  rose,  for  the  seedlings  to  outgrow  the  disease  by  the 
sloughing  off  of  the  diseased  cotyledons  before  infection  of  the  first  leaf  occurred. 

An  examination  of  records  from  one  of  the  southern  onion  sections  (Laredo, 
Tex.)  shows  that  during  a  good  share  of  the  critical  period  for  onion  smut  infec- 
tion (August  and  September)  the  mean  air  temperature  is  above  that  at  which 
complete  inhibition  of  infection  was  attained  in  our  experiments  (29  degrees  C. 
or  about  84  degrees  F.).  If  we  assume,  as  observed  in  northern  sections,  that 
the  mean  temperature  for  the  upper  layer  of  soil  is  several  degrees  higher  than 
that  of  the  air  at  this  time  of  the  year,  it  is  reasonable  to  conclude  that  even 
though  the  smut  organism  were  introduced  into  southern  onion  sections,  its 
development  would  be  prevented  or  greatly  minimized,  first,  by  the  prevention 
of  infection  due  to  high  temperatures,  and,  secondly,  by  the  rapidly  developing 
tops  out-growing  the  disease,  should  occasional  infections  occur. 


BULB  CROPS  265 

In  general  we  believe,  therefore,  that  the  regional  distribution  of  onion  smut 
in  the  United  States  is  conditioned  upon  the  soil  temperature  during  the  seedling 
stage  of  the  plant's  growth,  the  infection  and  development  of  smut  being  favored 
by  the  relatively  low  temperatures  and  inhibited  by  the  high  temperatures,  with 
approximately  29  degrees  C.  as  the  critical  point. 

It  is  hoped  that  the  evidence  here  recorded  may  lead  to  the  accumulation 
of  further  field  data  bearing  upon  this  particular  problem  by  investigators  in 
various  places,  especially  in  the  southern  states.  It  is  also  believed  that  these 
results  illustrate  well  the  importance  of  more  persistent  inquiry  by  the  experi- 
mental method  into  the  relation  of  environmental  factors  to  the  occurrence  of 
disease  of  plants  in  general. 

Onion  smut  can  be  controlled  by  applying  a  solution  of  formaldehyde 
(1  pint  commercial  formaldehyde  to  16  gallons  of  vi^ater)  in  the  furrow 
with  the  seed.  About  200  gallons  of  the  solution  to  the  acre  is  the  usual 
application  and  it  is  applied  in  a  small  stream  through  a  tube  connected 
with  a  tank  on  the  seed  drill.  The  outlet  end  of  the  tube  is  placed  just 
in  front  of  the  covering  attachments  of  the  drill.  The  formaldehyde 
treatment  is  not  expensive  and  is  very  effective.  Increase  in  yields  of 
200  bushels  to  the  acre  due  to  the  treatment  is  not  uncommon. 

Onion  Mildew. — Mildew  (Peronospora  schleideniana)  may  be  recog- 
nized by  the  fungus  coating  on  the  outer  surface  of  affected  leaves. 
Affected  plants  turn  yellow  and  finalh^  die.  The  disease  usually  appears  at 
a  few  points  in  the  field  and  spreads  under  favorable  conditions  of  moisture. 
Spraying  with  Bordeaux  mixture,  to  which  resin  fish-oil  soap  has  been 
added,  is  sometimes  recommended,  but  it  has  not  been  found  practicable 
to  apply  the  material.  Burning  the  dead  tops  to  prevent  the  fungus 
from  wintering  over  in  them  and  rotation  of  crops  are  recommended. 

Onion  Thrips. — Onion  Thrips  {Thrips  tabaci)  are  small,  black,  sucking 
insects  which  attack  the  leaves  of  onion  plants  giving  them  a  blanched 
appearance.  The  tender,  center  leaves  become  curled  and  deformed  and 
the  outer  leaves  turn  brown  at  the  tips.  Thrips  are  most  injurious  during 
drj'  weather  and  are  seldom  very  destructive  during  rainy  periods,  since 
the  rain  knocks  many  of  the  insects  off  and  kills  them.  Spraying  with 
tobacco  extracts  and  soap  before  the  leaves  turn  down  will  aid  in  keeping 
this  insect  under  control.  Spraying  for  thrips  has  not  become  a  common 
practice  because  of  the  difficulty  of  applying  the  material.  Many  growers, 
who  have  tried  spraying,  have  waited  until  injury  was  very  evident,  which, 
in  many  cases,  was  after  the  tops  had  begun  to  fall  over.  Poor  results 
were  secured  and  spraying  was  declared  to  be  of  no  value  in  thrips  control. 

Onion  Maggot. — The  onion  maggot  (Phorbia  ceparum  and  P.  fusciceps) 
is  the  larva  of  a  small  fly  resembling  the  common  house  fly,  but  smaller. 
Eggs  are  laid  on  the  plants  near  the  base  or  in  cracks  of  the  soil.  The 
small  maggots,  about  l^  inch  long,  kill  the  young  plants  and  later  burrow 
into  the  bulbs,  causing  decay.     Since  the  maggots  enter  the  tissues  and 


266  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

eat  from  the  inside  poisoning  by  spraying  is  impossible.  A  poisoned 
bait  to  attract  and  kill  the  flies  before  the  eggs  are  laid  has  been  recom- 
mended.    This  bait  is  made  as  follows: 

Sodium  arsenite H  ounce 

Water * 1  gallon 

Cheap  molasses 1  pint 

Dissolve  the  sodium  arsenite  in  boihng  water  and  add  the  molasses. 
This  may  be  sprayed  on  the  plants  with  a  coarse  nozzle  so  that  the 
material  will  collect  in  large  drops,  or  it  may  be  distributed  in  fifteen  to 
twenty  smalt  pans  for  each  acre.  The  hquid  needs  to  be  renewed  after 
heavy  rains  and  when  dried  out. 

Yields,  Costs  and  Returns. — The  average  yield  of  onions  through 
a  period  of  years  for  the  principal  onion-producing  states  is  about  300 
bushels  per  acre,  although  any  good  grower  expects  an  average  of  at 
least  400  bushels.  The  average  yield  on  50  muck  farms  in  Northern 
Indiana  and  Southern  Michigan  (Farmers  Bull.  761)  in  1914  was 
421  bushels  per  acre.  In  the  Connecticut  Valley  of  Massachusetts 
the  average  yield  in  1913  was  336  bushels  and  in  1914,  460  bushels  (Mass. 
Bull.  1Q9).  The  average  yield  on  86  farms,  on  which  studies  were  made 
by  the  Massachusetts  Experiment  Station,  was  527  bushels  to  the  acre 
in  1914. 

The  cost  of  growing  onions  is  so  variable  that  estimates  are  of  little 
value.  However,  results  of  studies  made  by  the  Massachusetts  Experi- 
ment Station  (20)  are  interesting  and  valuable  in  showing  the  distribution 
of  costs  on  86  farms.  The  cost  of  growing  and  harvesting  averaged  31 
cents  per  bushel  where  the  land  owner  produced  the  crop  and  35  cents 
when  the  crop  was  grown  by  a  renter.  The  itemized  costs  of  the  land 
owner  were  as  follows : 

Rent  (calculated  at  5  per  cent) $  15 .  00 

Interest  on  value  of  equipment  (calculated  per  acre) 2.97 

Taxes  on  land  valuation  $60.     Rate  $18  per  $1,000 1 .08 

Depreciation  of  equipment  per  year .3.40 

Fertilizer  3,000  pounds  at  $34  per  ton 51 .  00 

Seed  6  pounds  at  $1.30  per  pound 7.80 

Labor  for  fitting  land  and  sowing  fertilizer: 

11  2-horse  hours  at  50  cts 5.50 

4  hours'  drilling  in  seed  at  $1.75  per  day 0.70 

Labor  for  tending  crop: 

21  daj's'  weeding  1 

4  days'  shove  hoeing  >  30  days  at  $1.75 52.50 

5  days'  cultivating      J 
Labor,  pulling: 

IK  days  at  $1.75 2.63 

Total  cost  per  acre $142.58 

Total  cost  per  bushel  (460  bushel  per  acre) 0. 31 


BULB  CROPS  267 

The  total  cost  of  preparing  a  bushel  of  onions  for  market  and  loading 
into  the  car,  or  putting  into  storage  was  6.8  cents,  distributed  as  follows : 

Topping  $0,040 

Screening  0.017 

Hauling 0.011 

Total $0,068 

Adding  31  cents,  or  the  cost  of  growing  a  bushel  of  onions,  gives  a 
total  of  37.8  cents,  delivered  at  storage  or  depot.  These  costs  do  not 
include  shipping  containers. 

The  cost  of  growing  and  harvesting  is  about  the  same  for  a  small  crop 
as  for  a  large  crop.  For  a  yield  of  300  bushels  per  acre  the  cost  of  grow- 
ing and  pulling  would  be  47.5  cents  and  the  handhng  6.8  cents,  making  a 
total  53.4  cents  per  bushel  for  growing  and  preparing  for  market.  This  is 
slightly  more  than  the  average  price  received  by  the  farmer  in 
Massachusetts  in  the  three-year  period  1913-1915  according  to  Cance, 
Machmer  and  Read,  who  state  that  the  average  price  received  by  the 
farmer  during  this  period  was  $1.14  per  100  pounds. 

Harvesting. — Onions  for  use  in  the  green  stage  are  harvested  as  soon 
as  they  reach  edible  size.  It  is  a  common  practice  to  make  several  pull- 
ings,  removing  the  largest  plants  each  time  and  leaving  the  others  to 
develop.  The  plants  are  pulled  by  hand,  the  roots  trimmed  and  the 
outside  skin  peeled  off,  leaving  the  stem  clean  and  white.  The  onions 
are  then  tied  in  small  bunches,  the  number  depending  upon  the  size  and 
the  local  custom.  Green  bunching  onions  are  not  shipped  to  any  great 
extent,  but  the  industry  is  limited  to  small  plantings  by  market  gardeners. 
In  order  to  take  advantage  of  the  early  market,  Bermuda  onions 
are  harvested  as  early  as  possible,  generally  before  the  tops  have  ripened. 
These  onions  are  not  kept  for  any  considerable  period,  therefore  it  is  not 
essential  that  they  be  ripe  when  harvested. 

Northern-grown  bulb  onions  of  the  common  type  are  usually  allowed 
to  ripen  before  being  harvested.  This  is  especially  important  if  they  are 
to  be  stored  for  an  immature  onion  is  easily  injured  and  will  not  keep  well. 
The  tops  should  ripen  down  and  the  outer  skin  of  the  bulbs  should  be 
dry  before  they  are  pulled.  Most  of  the  bulbs  grown  commercially 
are  pulled  by  hand  and  placed  in  windrows,  consisting  of  6  to  8 
rows  of  onions.  They  are  placed  in  such  a  way  that  the  tops  partially 
cover  the  bulbs  and  protect  them  from  the  sun.  They  are  left  in 
the  windrows  long  enough  for  the  tops  to  wither  completely.  The 
length  of  time  required  depends  upon  the  weather  and  may  be  3  days 
or  10  days  to  2  weeks.  If  rain  occurs  during  this  curing  the  onions 
should  be  turned  with  a  scoop  fork  or  a  wooden  rake  so  that  they  will 
dry  thoroughly. 


268  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

After  the  onions  arc  dry  the  tops  are  usually  removed  and  the  bulbs 
placed  in  crates  for  further  curing.  The  tops  are  cut  off  by  hand,  using 
ordinary  sheep  shears,  care  being  taken  not  to  cut  too  close.  A  half- 
inch  to  1  inch  of  the  tops  should  be  left  on  the  bulb.  In  some  sections 
onion  topping  machines  are  used  and  in  this  case  the  onions  are  put  up  in 
crates  and  hauled  to  a  central  location  and  run  through  the  topper.  This 
machine  removes  the  tops,  grades  the  bulbs  into  two  or  more  sizes,  and 
delivers  them  into  the  crates  or  bags. 

Curing. — Onion  bulbs  that  are  to  be  sold  during  the  winter  are  usually 
thoroughl}^  cured  before  being  placed  in  storage.  Where  crates  are  used 
for  the  curing,  the  bulbs  are  placed  in  them  as  soon  as  the  tops  are 
removed.  The  filled  crates  are  usually  stacked  in  the  field,  where  the 
stacks  are  covered  with  boards,  roofing  paper  or  other  covering  to 
protect  the  onions  from  injury  by  sun  and  rain.  Sacks  are  sometimes 
used  instead  of  crates.  They  are  filled  and  set  upright  on  poles,  or  boards 
to  keep  them  off  of  the  ground.  A  third  method  of  curing  is  sometimes 
practiced,  namely,  curing  in  slatted  cribs  similar  to  corn  cribs.  In  fact, 
corn  cribs  are  often  used  for  this  purpose.  This  method  has  the  objection 
of  requiring  extra  handling  which  adds  to  the  expense  and  also  injures  the 
bulbs.  Sometimes  the  crates  are  stacked  in  open  curing  sheds  instead  of 
being  covered  in  the  field. 

The  length  of  time  required  for  curing  depends  largely  upon  the 
weather  conditions  and  the  type  of  container  used.  Thorough  curing 
requires  3  or  4  weeks  and  even  longer  in  some  seasons.  Very  often  they 
are  left  in  the  field,  or  curing  shed  until  marketed  or  until  freezing  weather 
when  they  are  put  into  storage  houses. 

Cleaning  and  Grading. — After  the  onions  are  well  cured  they  are 
usually  run  over  a  sorting  rack  where  the  "thicknecks"  and  injured  or 
decayed  bulbs  are  picked  out,  while  the  dirt  and  small  bulbs  fall  through 
the  slats.  At  the  same  time  the  dry  loose  outer  scales  are  rubbed  off 
leaving  the  bulbs  bright  and  clean.  The  sorting  rack  is  often  made  so  that 
the  bulbs  can  be  graded  into  two  or  more  grades,  based  on  size,  as  they 
pass  down  over  the  rack.  The  very  small  onions,  those  below  %  inch  in 
diameter,  fall  through  the  first  section  of  the  rack  and  those  between  ^i 
inch  and  l}i  or  l^i  inches  fall  through  the  second  section  and  the  large 
bulbs  pass  on  out  at  the  ends.  If  only  one  market  grade  is  made  the 
slats  or  rods  of  the  sorting  rack  are  generally  l}i  inches  apart,  so  that  all 
onions  above  that  size  pass  over  and  those  below  fall  through  and  are 
discarded. 

The  Bureau  of  Markets,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, 
recommends  three  grades  for  northern-grown  onions  (all  varieties  grown 
in  the  United  States  except  Bermudas,  Denias  and  Creoles),  U.  S. 
Grade  No.  1,  U.  S.  Grade  Boilers  and  U.  S.  Grade  No.  2.  The  specifica- 
tions for  these  grades  are  as  follows : 


BULB  CROPS  269 

U.  S.  Grade  No.  1  shall  consist  of  sound  onions  of  similar  varietal  char- 
acteristics which  are  free  from  doubles,  scullions,  and  sprouted  onions  and 
practically  free  from  dirt,  tops,  or  other  foreign  matter,  and  damage  caused  by 
disease,  insects,  or  mechanical  or  other  means.  The  diameter  shall  not  be  less 
than  l}^i  inches. 

In  order  to  allow  for  variations  incident  to  commercial  grading  and  handling, 
5  per  cent  by  weight  of  any  lot  may  be  under  the  prescribed  size,  and  in  addi- 
tion, 5  per  cent  by  weight  of  any  such  lot  may  be  below_  the  remaining  require- 
ments of  this  grade. 

If  any  lot  which  meets  the  requirements  of  this  grade  contains  more  than 
25  per  cent  by  weight  of  onions  with  diameters  from  l^.^  to  l^i  inches,  inclusive, 
the  grade  name  shall  be  "U.  S.  Grade  No.  1,  Medium." 

If  any  lot  which  meets  the  requirements  of  this  grade  contains  more  than 
90  per  cent  by  weight  of  onions  with  a  diameter  greater  than  23-^  inches  the 
grade  name  shall  be  "U.  S.  Grade  No.  1,  Large." 

U.  S.  Grade  Boilers  shall  consist  of  sound  onions  of  similar  varietal  char- 
acteristics which  are  free  from  doubles,  scullions,  and  sprouted  onions  and 
practically  free  from  dirt,  tops  or  other  foreign  matter,  and  damage  caused  by 
disease,  insects,  or  mechanical  or  other  means.  The  diameter  shall  not  be  less 
than  three-quarters  of  an  inch  nor  more  than  Ij's  inches. 

In  order  to  allow  for  variations  incident  to  commercial  grading  and  handling 
5  per  cent  by  weight  of  any  lot  may  vary  from  the  prescribed  size,  and,  in  addi- 
tion 5  per  cent  by  weight  of  any  such  lot  may  be  below  the  remaining  require- 
ments of  this  grade. 

U.  S.  Grade  No.  2  shall  consist  of  onions  which  do  not  meet  the  requirements 
of  any  of  the  foregoing  grades. 

The  following  definitions  are  given  of  the  terms  used : 

"Double"  means  an  onion  which,  by  splitting  into  two  parts  has  broken  the 
outer  skin. 

"Scullion"  means  an  onion  which  has  a  thick  neck  and  a  relatively  small 
and  poorly  developed  bulb. 

"Practically  free"  means  that  the  appearance  shall  not  be  injured  to  an 
extent  readily  apparent  upon  casual  examination  of  the  lot. 

"Diameter"  means  the  greatest  dimension  at  right  angles  to  a  straight  Hne 
running  from  the  stem  to  the  root. 

Packing. — Onion  bulbs  are  placed  upon  the  market  in  crates,  hampers, 
round-stave  baskets,  bags,  and,  to  some  extent  in  bulk.  The  folding 
crate  of  the  Cummer  type  is  used  almost  exchisively  for  Bermuda  onions, 
and  to  some  extent  for  common  onions,  especially  for  the  white  varieties. 
In  some  regions  bushel  hampers  and  half-barrel  hampers  are  used  for 
shipping  early  onions.  Coarse-mesh  bags,  holding  100  pounds  or  more, 
are  the  most  common  shipping  containers  for  onions  as  these  are  cheaper 
than  any  other.  Only  clean  bags  should  be  used.  The  main  objection 
tojhe  use  of  bags  is  that  they  do  not  protect  the  onions  against  injury  by 
bruising,  in  handling. 


270  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

No  special  method  of  packing  is  used,  but  it  is  important  that  the 
containers  be  well  filled  to  prevent  the  bulbs  from  rolling  around.  If  the 
onions  have  been  in  storage  for  some  time  they  should  be  regraded  before 
being  packed  so  as  to  remove  any  bulbs  which  have  begun  to  decay  or  are 
otherwise  injured. 

Storage. — Onions  to  keep  well  must  be  well  ripened  and  thoroughly 
cured  before  being  placed  in  storage.  Immature,  soft  and  thick-necked 
bulbs  should  not  be  placed  in  storage  but  sold  as  soon  as  harvested. 

The  essentials  for  successful  storage  are  thorough  ventilation;  uniform, 
comparatively  low  temperature;  dry  atmosphere;  and  protection  against 
actual  freezing.  Ventilation  is  provided  by  openings  near  the  floor  and 
through  the  roof  of  the  storage  house,  but  to  insure  circulation  of  air 
through  the  onions  it  is  necessary  to  provide  air  spaces  between  the  con- 
tainers used.  Where  crates  are  used  the  tiers  are  separated  by  1-inch 
strips  and  a  space  of  1  inch  or  more  is  left  between  the  rows  of  crates. 
Bin  storage  is  used  to  some  extent,  especially  in  Massachusetts.  The 
bins  are  usually  8  feet  wide  and  15  feet  deep,  having  portable  shelves 
which  slide  into  position  on  supports  at  each  side.  The  onions  are  placed 
G  to  8  inches  deep  on  the  shelves  allowing  a  2-inch  space  for  air  circulation 
above  each  shelf. 

A  temperature  of  32  degrees  F.  or  slightly  below  is  considered  almost 
ideal.  It  is  impossible  to  maintain  a  temperature  near  the  freezing  point 
in  common  storage  houses  during  periods  of  warm  weather.  Effort 
should  be  made  to  keep  the  temperature  as  low  as  possible  during  such 
periods  by  opening  the  houses  during  the  coolest  part  of  the  da^^ 

To  maintain  a  low  degree  of  humidity  the  house  should  be  built 
entirely  above  ground  and  the  ventilators  and  other  openings  should  be 
kept  closed  during  cloudy  or  rainy  days.  In  some  instances,  a  drying 
agent,  usually  calcium  chloride,  is  used  to  absorb  the  moisture  from  the 
atmosphere.  This  material  is  very  often  used  in  cold-storage  houses  and 
is  very  important  when  the  temperature  is  allowed  to  go  above  the  freez- 
ing point  and  cause  melting  of  ice  from  the  refrigerator  pipes. 

Common  storage  houses,  built  especially  for  storing  onions  are  used 
for  a  large  part  of  the  stored  crop.  These  houses  are  constructed  of  wood, 
hollow  tile,  cement  blocks,  reinforced  concrete,  or  bricks,  and  are  so 
built  as  to  be  nearly  air-tight  when  closed.  The  walls  and  ceilings  are 
well  insulated  by  being  doubled,  trebled  or  even  quadrupled  with  air 
spaces,  or  some  insulating  material  between  the  layers.  The  general 
principles  of  construction  of  the  common  type  of  onion  storage  houses 
are  practically  the  same  as  given  for  sweet  potato  storage  houses.  (See 
Chapter  XXIII.) 

Cold  storage  is  being  employed  to  a  considerable  extent  for  onions 
and  is  increasing  in  importance  each  year.  In  cold-storage  warehouses 
it  is  possible  to  maintain  a  low  temperature  throughout  the  storage 


BULB  CROPS  271 

period,  thereby  keeping  the  bulbs  in  a  dormant  condition.  The  tempera- 
ture should  be  kept  at  or  below  the  freezing  point  to  prevent  drip  from 
the  pipes.  There  is  no  danger  of  freezing  the  onions  unless  the  tempera- 
ture goes  below  28  degrees  F.  and  remains  there  for  a  considerable 
period. 

Cost  of  Storage. — A  study  of  the  cost  of  storage  in  Massachusetts 
was  made  in  1914-1915  (20),  covering  22  houses  with  a  capacity  of 
486,900  bushels  of  onions.  The  overhead  cost  per  bushel  was  5.3 
cents  distributed  as  follows: 

Interest  on  investment  including  buildings,  crates,  bins,  etc.  $211,000  at 

5  per  cent $10,550.00 

Taxes 2,331.55 

Insurance  on  buildings  and  equipment 2, 500. 00 

Insurance  on  onions  486,900  bushel  at  30  cts.,  $6  per  |1,000 876.42 

Depreciation  at  3}i  per  cent 7 ,  385 .  00 

Repairs  1  per  cent 2 ,  110 .  00 

Total  overhead  charges $25 ,  752 .  97 

Overhead  charges  per  bushel $0,053 

In  addition  to  the  overhead  charges  other  items  must  be  included, 
such  as  shrinkage,  cost  of  regrading,  hauling,  etc.  Cance,  Machmer 
and  Read  have  the  following  to  say  in  regard  to  shrinkage  (20) : 

The  data  collected  from  22  storages  show  that  the  shrinkage  for  the 
season  of  1914-1915  was  about  10  per  cent  of  the  quantity  stored.  It  is  seldom 
less  than  7  per  cent  for  any  one  year  and  hardly  ever  exceeds  15  per  cent,  except 
for  onions  held  until  the  very  last  of  the  season.  The  crop  of  1915  was  unusual 
in  this  respect.  The  wet  season  of  1915  caused  the  onions  to  become  affected 
with  "slippery  skin"  and  "center  rot,"  so  that  losses  as  high  as  35  per  cent  were 
reported.     The  average  shrinkage,  however,  probably  did  not  exceed  20  per  cent. 

Shrinkage  losses  as  well  as  the  cost  of  extra  handling  must  be  considered  in 
computing  the  total  cost  of  storage.  In  figuring  the  shrinkage  loss,  the  value 
of  the  onions  stored  is  taken  at  SI.  14  per  100  pounds,  which  represents  the  aver- 
age price  paid  to  the  farmers  for  the  three  years  1913-1915. 

The  cost  of  extra  handling  from  storage  and  loss  by  shrinkage  on  the  basis 
of  250  bags  would  be  as  follows: 

To  regrade  and  sack,  5  men  1  day  at  $1.75 $  8 .  75 

To  load  and  unload  1  man  2  hr.  at  17 J-^  cts 0.35 

To  haul  to  station,  man  and  team  1  day . . .  .^ 5 .  00 

Shrinkage  25  bags  at  $1.14 ". 28.50 

Total  cost  shrinkage  and  handling $42 .  60 

Total  cost  per  bushel  (450  bushels) $  0 .  095 

Cost  per  bushel  not  including  shrinkage 0.031 

Combining  the  overhead  charges  with  the  charges  for  removal  from 
storage  and  shrinkage  makes  a  total  cost  per  bushel  of  14.8  cents. 
The  usual  charges  for  storage  in  commercial  houses  in  Massachusetts 


272  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

in  1914-1915  was  23  to  25  cents  per  bag  of  2  bushels  not  including 
shrinkage.  This  compares  with  an  actual  average  cost  of  17  cents 
per  bag. 

Growing  Onion  Sets. — Onion  sets  are  small  bulbs  produced  from 
seed  sown  very  thickl3^  A  large  part  of  the  set  crop  of  the  United  States 
is  produced  in  the  vicinity  of  Chicago,  although  a  few  are  grown  near 
Louisville,  Kentucky;  Chillicothe,  Ohio;  and  at  a  few  other  points. 

The  best  soils  for  onion  sets  are  loose  sandy  loams,  and  silt  loams. 
While  rich  soils  are  not  especially  desired,  the  areas  devoted  to  onion 
sets  contain  soils  much  above  the  average  trucking  soil  in  quality.  The 
size  of  sets  on  these  soils  is  controlled  largely  by  very  thick  seeding.  Even 
with  a  heavy  rate  of  planting  some  of  the  bulbs  grown  are  too  large  for 
sets  and  are  usually  sold  as  "picklers."  Bulbs  over  ^i  inch  in  diameter 
should  not  be  used  as  sets. 

The  amount  of  seed  used  for  growing  sets  is  determined  by  the  richness- 
of  the  soil.  On  poor  soils  40  to  60  pounds  are  used,  on  medium  rich  soils 
60  to  80  pounds  and  on  rich  soils  80  to  100  pounds  of  seed  are  planted  to 
the  acre. 

The  seed  is  sown  by  hand  seed  drills  or  by  gang  drills  of  the  types 
used  for  planting  seed  for  large  onions.  Some  growers  use  special 
seeders  which  distribute  the  seed  in  several  rows  about  an  inch  apart; 
others  place  a  funnel-shaped  spreader  on  the  spout,  which  distributes 
the  seed  over  an  area  3  or  4  inches  in  width.  The  distance  between  rows 
is  usually  12  to  14  inches  although  closer  planting  is  sometimes  practiced. 

The  general  methods  of  culture  are  the  same  for  onion  sets  as  for 
large  bulbs. 

In  harvesting  sets  they  are  first  loosened  by  means  of  an  onion 
harvester,  an  attachment  for  the  wheel  hoe,  which  runs  under  the  row. 
They  are  gathered  in  bushel  baskets  and  dumped  into  shallow,  slatted 
trays  to  dry.  Topping  is  seldom  necessary  since  the  small  tops  shrivel 
up.  The  trays  of  sets  are  left  spread  in  the  field  for  a  day  or  two  then 
they  are  piled  one  above  the  other  in  the  field  with  a  space  of  3  or  4  inches 
between.  A  temporary  roof  is  placed  over  the  pile  of  trays.  The  sets 
are  left  in  the  field  until  they  are  quite  dry,  then  they  are  screened  and 
removed  to  the  storage  house.  The  sets  are  stored  under  conditions 
similar  to  those  used  for  large  bulbs. 

LEEK 

The  leek  (Allium  porrimi  Linn.)  is  a  biennial  grown  for  its  blanched 
stems  and  leaves.  It  is  believed  to  be  a  native  of  the  Mediterranean 
region,  where  it  has  been  in  cultivation  since  prehistoric  times.  It  was 
known  by  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans.  It  is  not  grown  in  this 
country  to  any  great  extent,  but  is  produced  on  a  small  scale  by  market 


BULB  CROPS  273 

gardeners  near  large  cities,  and  is  consumed  largel}'  by  the  foreign 
population. 

Leeks  are  propagated  entirely  from  seed,  which  may  be  sown  in  a 
greenhouse  or  hotbed,  the  young  plants  being  transplanted  in  the  garden  at 
the  proper  time,  or  they  may  be  sown  in  rows  where  the  crop  is  to  mature. 
The  method  of  planting  and  the  distance  are  about  the  same  as  for  the 
onion  except  that  leeks  are  given  a  little  more  space,  4  to  5  inches  in 
the  row.  In  fact  the  general  culture  of  the  crop  is  very  similar  to  that 
given  the  onion,  except  that  leek  plants  are  blanched  by  banking  with  soil. 
The  soil  is  worked  up  to  the  plants  gradually  as  they  grow,  care  being 
taken  not  to  bank  up  too  early  as  the  plants  decay  easily  when  young. 

The  varieties  of  leeks  catalogued  by  American  seedsmen  include 
London  Flag,  Scotch  Flag,  Giant  Carentan  and  Large  Musselburgh. 
These  varieties  are  not  very  distinct  and  it  is  prol^able  that  the  last  two 
are  the  same. 

Leeks  are  marketed  in  bunches  like  green  onions.  They  are  eaten 
raw  alone  or  in  mixed  salads,  and  cooked  as  flavoring  in  soups  and  stews. 

GARLIC 

Garlic  (Allium  sativum  Linn.)  is  a  hardy  perennial  plant  native  of 
southern  Europe.  It  was  known  to  the  ancients  and  is  said  to  have 
been  disliked  by  the  Romans  on  account  of  the  strong  odor,  but  was  fed 
to  their  laborers  and  soldiers.  It  was  used  in  England  as  early  as  the 
first  half  of  the  sixteenth  century. 

Garlic  differs  from  the  onion  in  that,  instead  of  producing  one  large 
bulb,  it  produces  a  group  of  small  bulbs  called  cloves.  This  group  is 
covered  with  a  thin  skin.  The  seed  stalk  is  similar  to  that  of  the  onion 
and  bears  both  seeds  and  bulblets  in  the  same  head.  The  seed,  however, 
is  seldom  used  for  propagation  as  the  cloves  and  bulblets  give  better 
satisfaction.     Cloves  are  more  commonly  used. 

A  rich  sandy  loam  soil  is  considered  best  for  garlic  although  an}^ 
soil  that  produces  good  onions  will  produce  garlic.  In  Louisiana  and 
Texas  where  garlic  is  grown  commercially  to  some  extent,  plantings 
are  made  in  the  fall,  but  in  northern  regions  should  be  made  in  the  spring. 
The  cloves  are  planted  like  ordinary  onion  sets,  about  4  inches  apart  in 
rows  12  to  18  inches  apart.  Cultivation,  fertihzation  and  general  care 
should  be  the  same  as  for  onions. 

As  soon  as  the  tops  are  ripe  the  bulbs  are  pulled,  and  after  being 
left  on  the  ground  long  enough  to  dry  the  tops  are  woven  together  in 
such  a  way  as  to  hold  the  bulbs  on  the  outside.  The  braids,  which  are 
usually  4  to  5  feet  long,  are  hung  in  a  dry  airy  place  to  cure.  After  curing 
several  braids  are  fastened  together  and  sold  in  this  fonn;  or  the  dry 
bulbs  with  the  tops  removed,  may  be  packed  in  baskets,  bags  or  other 
containers.     The  bulbs  are  usually  sold  by  the  pound. 


274  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

CJurlic  is  used  largely  as  flavoring  in  soups,  stews  and  to  some  extent 
in  pickles.  It  is  not  popular  with  Americans  but  is  grown  largely  for 
foreigners,  especially  those  from  southern  Europe.  A  considerable 
quantity  is  imported  since  the  production  in  this  countr}-  does  not  supply 
the  demand. 

SHALLOT 

The  Shallot  (Allium  ascalonicum  Linn.)  is  believed  to  have  come  from 
western  Asia.  It  is  a  perennial,  seldom  produces  seeds,  but  the  bulb 
when  planted  divides  into  a  number  of  cloves,  which  remain  attached  at 
the  bottom.  It  has  been  in  cultivation  from  a  remote  period.  It  is 
mentioned  and  figured  in  nearly  all  old  works  on  botany. 

The  cloves  are  planted  in  spring  in  about  the  same  manner  as 
described  for  garlic  and  the  cultivation  and  care  given  onions  are  satis- 
factory^ for  shallots.  The  bulbs  are  harvested  when  the  leaves  begin  to 
wither  and  after  being  left  exposed  long  enough  to  dry  they  are  divided 
and  stored  in  a  cool  dry  place. 

Shallots  are  used  mainly  for  seasoning  and  give  a  more  delicate 
flavor  than  onions.     The  leaves  are  also  eaten  when  green. 

CIBOUL  (CIBOULE)  OR  WELCH  ONION 

Ciboul  {Allium  fistulosum  Linn.)  is  a  perennial  but  is  grown  as  an 
annual  or  biennial.  It  is  a  native  of  Siberia  or  the  East  and  was  intro- 
duced into  England  about  1629.  It  does  not  form  a  real  bulb  but  only 
a  small  enlargement  at  the  base.  It  is  grown  for  its  leaves  which  are 
used  in  salads. 

This  plant  may  be  propagated  by  division,  or  by  seeds,  the  latter 
being  preferred.  The  seeds  are  sown  where  the  plants  are  to  grow, 
giving  about  the  same  space  as  for  green  bunching  onions.  The  culture 
given  green  onions  is  satisfactory  for  this  crop. 

CHIVE 

Chive  or  cive  {Allium  schoenoprasum  Linn.)  is  a  perennial,  probably 
a  native  of  Europe.  It  is  not  grown  to  any  great  extent  in  America, 
although  it  is  listed  in  seed  catalogues.  The  plant  grows  in  thick  tufts 
and  produces  very  small,  oval  bulbs  forming  a  compact  mass.  It  is 
always  propagated  by  division  of  the  tufts,  since  seed  is  rarely  produced. 
While  the  plant  is  perennial  it  is  a  good  plan  to  take  up  the  clumps  and 
replant  them  every  two  or  three  years. 

Chives  are  used  as  seasoning  and  are  much  grown  in  European 
gardens.  They  are  very  popular  with  the  Scotch  and  are  considered 
almost  indispensable  in  omelettes.  The  plant  is  grown  for  its  leaves 
which  are  cut  off  with  a  knife.  The  cutting  seems  to  stimulate  fresh 
growth. 


CHAPTER  XXIII 
THE  POTATO  CROPS 

Potato  .  Sweet  Potato 

The  potato  or  Irish  potato  and  the  sweet  potato  are  the  most  impor- 
tant vegetable  crops.  While  they  are  not  related  botanically  and  their 
cultural  requirements  are  unlike  they  are  associated  in  the  public  mind. 
They  are  both  starchy  foods  and  in  general,  their  uses  in  the  diet  are 
similar.  The  word  "potato"  as  used  in  the  North  refers  to  the  Irish 
potato,  while  in  the  South  it  usually  refers  to  the  sweet  potato, 

POTATOES* 

The  average  annual  world  production  of  the  potato  is  now  between 
five  and  five  and  a  half  billion  bushels  having  a  value  nearly,  if  not  quite 
equal  to  that  of  wheat  which  has  for  years  been  recognized  as  the  world's 
leading  food  crop.  The  4  principal  world  food  crops  are  corn,  wheat, 
oats  and  potatoes.  Potatoes  rank  first  in  total  bushels  produced  and 
rival  wheat  in  total  value.  There  is  probably  no  food  article  in  the  daily 
diet  of  the  white  race  more  common  than  the  potato.  It  contains  nearly 
80  per  cent  water  in  its  uncooked  state.  The  remainder  consists  of 
about  2  per  cent  protein  and  18  per  cent  starch.  The  potato  is  one  of 
the  cheapest  and  most  common  sources  of  carbohydrate  food. 

Statistics  of  Production. — The  average  annual  world  production  of 
potatoes  is  approximately  five  bilHon  bushels.  Germany  produces 
about  one  billion,  Russia  about  eight  hundred  million,  France  four 
hundred  milhon,  the  United  States  four  hundred  milhon,  and  Austria 
between  two  hundred  milhon  and  three  hundred  million  bushels.  More 
than  one-half  of  the  world's  crop,  therefore,  is  produced  in  the  5 
countries  mentioned. 

According  to  the  census  for  1919  the  rank  in  value  of  the  principal 
groups  of  crops  grown  in  the  United  States  are  cereals,  hay  and  forage, 
cotton,  vegetables,  and  tobacco  in  the  order  named.  The  total  value 
of  all  vegetables  was  approximately  one  and  one-third  billion  dollars 
and  the  potato  crop  had  a  value  nearly  equal  to  all  other  vegetables 
combined.  Nearly  45  per  cent  of  all  farms  grew  potatoes.  These  farms 
reported  an  average  of  1.1  acre  per  farm,  yield  of  89.3  bushels  per  acre 

*  The  material  on  potatoes  was  prepared  by  E.  V.  Hardenburg,  Assistant  Professor 
of  Vegetable  Gardening,  Cornell  University. 

275 


276 


VEGETABLE  CROPS 


and  an  average  value  of  S197  per  acre  in  1919.  The  acreage,  production, 
value,  yield  per  acre  and  percentage  of  total  acreage  in  potatoes  for  the 
leading  potato  states  and  for  the  United  States  as  reported  by  the  last 
census  is  shown  in  Table  XXXV. 

Table  XXXV. — Acreage,   Production,   Value,   Yield   per  Acre,   Percentage 

OF  Total  Acreage  in  Potatoes  for  Principal  Potato  States  According 

TO  Census  of  1920 


State 

Acreage 

in 

thousands 

Produc- 
tion in 
thousands 
of  bushels 

Value  in 
thousands 
of  dollars 

Yield  per 
acre  in 
bushels 

Per  cent 

of  total 

acreage 

in 

potatoes 

New  York                 

310 
332 
294 
111 
281 
234 
3,252 

32,471 
26,690 
26,376 
25,531 
23,930 
22,052 
290,428 

69,812 
57,384 
60,665 
52,340 
49,056 
47,411 
639,441 

104.6 
80.4 
89.6 

229.2 
85.3 
94.2 
89.3 

9.5 

Minnesota             

10.2 

Wisconsin         

9.1 

Maine         

3.4 

8.6 

7.2 

United  States 

100.0 

These  figures,  indicate  that  over  48  per  cent  of  the  total  acreage  and 
over  52  per  cent  of  the  total  crop  was  produced  in  6  states.  The  fact 
that  these  states,  with  the  exception  of  Pennsylvania,  border  on  Canada 
or  the  Great  Lakes  indicates  the  importance  of  cool  climate  to  the 
potato  crop. 

The  per  capita  annual  consumption  of  potatoes  in  the  United  States 
varies  between  3  and  4  bushels  while  in  western  European  countries, 
where  production  is  more  intensive,  consumption  is  considerably  greater. 

Our  foreign  trade  in  potatoes  is  relatively  small.  Whereas  our  average 
annual  exportation  for  1911  to  1919  inclusive  was  3,082,000  bushels, 
our  average  annual  importation  for  the  same  period  was  2,508,000 
bushels.  This  leaves  an  average  annual  net  exportation  of  only  574,000 
bushels. 

History  and  Taxonomy. — The  potato  is  undoubtedly  a  native  of  South 
America  where  it  was  in  cultivation  by  the  natives  long  before  the  dis- 
covery of  America.  In  fact  it  is  believed  by  some  authorities  that  it 
was  cultivated  at  the  time  of  the  Incas  (Sturtevant).  It  probably  was 
carried  to  Spain  from  Peru  early  in  the  sixteenth  century.  There  is 
some  controversy  as  to  whether  the  potato  was  introduced  into  this 
country  from  Europe,  or  brought  direct  from  South  America  by  Spanish 
explorers.  At  any  rate,  it  was  known  in  continental  Europe  and  to  the 
colonists  of  Virginia  almost  simultaneously  and  as  early  as  the  latter  part 
of  the  sixteenth  century.     It  remained  for  the  early  English  colonists  of 


THE  POTATO  CROPS  277 

Virginia  to  introduce  the  potato  as  a  food  plant  into  England  about  1586. 
As  a  food  it  did  not  become  generally  popular  in  Europe  until  the  middle 
of  the  eighteenth  century,  some  time  after  being  freely  eaten  by  the  whites 
and  Indians  in  the  North  American  colonies.  During  the  next  hundred 
years,  however,  production  developed  rapidly  throughout  temperate 
Europe  and  America.  The  seriousness  of  the  famous  Irish  famine 
of  1846,  due  to  loss  by  blight  rot  of  the  potato  crop  of  Ireland  in  that  year, 
is  evidence  of  the  extreme  dependence  of  the  masses  of  western  Europe 
upon  this  food. 

The  members  of  the  family  Solanaceae,  of  which  the  potato  is  the  most 
important,  all  contain  the  chemical  solanin.  Some  of  the  better  known 
relatives  of  the  potato  are  tomato,  tobacco,  pepper,  eggplant,  henbane, 
belladonna,  petunia,  Jimson  weed,  black  nightshade  and  bittersweet. 
Of  the  several  hundred  species  of  Solanum,  very  few  have  the  habit  of 
forming  tubers  on  their  underground  stems.  Of  these  few  tuber-bearing 
species,  only  four  produce  tubers  of  sufficient  size  to  command  commercial 
attention.  These  in  the  order  of  their  importance  are  S.  tuberosum,  the 
common  white  cultivated  potato  of  commerce ;  *S.  commersonw,  a  colored 
form  used  to  a  limited  extent  by  the  peasantry  of  western  Europe;  S. 
jamesii,  the  wild  potato  of  Arizona  used  by  the  Indians  of  that  region; 
and  S.  maglia  the  wild  potato  common  to  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

The  plant  attains  an  average  height  of  two  to  three  feet  depending 
upon  variety  and  environment.  The  stems  are  angular,  solid  and  often 
winged  in  cross-section  and  bear  compound  leaves  with  leaflets  opposite 
and  decreasing  in  size  from  apex  to  base  of  the  leaf.  The  blossoms  are 
borne  in  clusters,  each  consisting  of  a  rotate  five-pointed  corolla  subtended 
by  a  similar  shaped  calyx.  The  corolla  color  varies  with  the  variety  from 
pure  white  to  deep  purple  or  violet.  The  true  fruit  or  seed-ball  of  the  potato 
is  nearly  spherical  }<2  to  1  inch  in  diameter  and  in  its  pulp  are  from  100 
to  300  pear-shaped  seeds.  Few  seed-balls  are  developed  on  our  present 
standard  varieties,  due  apparently  to  such  causes  as  paucity  of  viable 
pollen,  premature  dehiscence  of  flower  buds  and  degeneration  of  flower 
parts.  Apparently  neither  flowering  habit  nor  seedball  formation  are, 
however,  correlated  with  tuber  yield.  The  potato  tuber  represents  an 
enlarged,  fore-shortened  portion  of  the  underground  stem.  The  tuber  is 
usually  borne  at  the  terminus  of  the  stolon  although  occasionally  lateral 
sessile  tubers  occur.  According  to  the  investigations  of  Clark  (26) ,  tuber 
formation  begins  at  about  the  end  of  the  period  of  flower-bud  development 
and  practically  the  entire  crop  of  tubers  is  set  at  this  time.  Obviously, 
therefore,  the  favorableness  of  soil  conditions  and  of  climate  during  this 
period  in  the  life  of  the  plant  is  of  immense  importance.  Clark,  from  a 
single  years'  test  of  the  influence  of  soil  type  on  the  number  and  yield  of 
tubers  per  hill  in  two  varieties,  found  that  as  the  soil  type  became  lighter 
the  number  and  yield  of  tubers  per  hill  increased. 


278  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

Climatic  Requirements. — Climate  is  decidedly  a  limiting  factor  in 
potato  production.  In  its  response  to  seasonal  temperatm^e  and  rainfall, 
the  potato  ranks  with  corn  and  cotton.  The  high  average  annual  yields 
obtained  in  Maine,  in  Scotland,  Ireland,  England  and  northern  Germany 
are  due  in  large  part  to  the  cool  growing  season  of  these  regions.  Accord- 
ing to  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  (169)  of  a  total 
average  annual  loss  from  1909  to  1919  of  30  per  cent  in  the  potato 
crop  of  this  country,  over  20  per  cent  was  due  to  adverse  weather. 
Growing  season  temperatures  ranging  from  60  to  75  degrees  F.  are 
most  favorable.  Maine  is  the  only  state  in  this  country  situated  north 
of  the  65  degrees  isotherm.  J.  Warren  Smith  (139)  correlated  monthly 
and  total  growing  season  temperature  and  rainfall  with  the  average 
annual  yields  of  potatoes  in  Ohio  over  a  period  of  55  years.  He  found 
a  very  significant  negative  relationship  between  temperature  "and 
yield  and  an  almost  equally  significant  positive  relationship  between 
rainfall  and  yield  in  that  state.  He  also  found  by  the  correlation  method 
that  July  weather  is  more  influential  on  potatoes  than  the  weather  of 
any  other  month,  doubtless  due  to  the  fact  that  this  being  the  time  when 
the  plant  is  blossoming  and  setting  tubers,  is  a  critical  period  in  the  life  of 
the  plant.  Fox  (46)  similarly  correlated  these  climatic  factors  with 
yield  in  New  York  for  a  period  of  26  years  and  obtained  results  agreeing 
with  those  of  Smith  except  that  the  rainfall  and  yield  correlation  was 
negative  instead  of  positive.  This  indicates  that  whereas  rainfall  is 
usually  a  limiting  factor  in  Ohio,  the  years  of  highest  rainfall  in  New 
York  have  been  years  of  severe  loss  in  the  potato  crop  from  rot  due  to  the 
late  Wight  fungus,  Phijtophthora  infestans.  The  states  having  highest 
average  yields  in  this  country  are  not  those  leading  in  total  production 
but  rather  those  intermountain  states  of  the  West  where  the  crop  is 
grown  on  the  higher  plateaus  under  irrigation.  These  limited  areas  are 
provided  with  ideal  temperature  and  moisture  conditions  through  eleva- 
tion and  a  controlled  water  supply.  Some  of  the  southern  states  (180) 
produce  a  part  of  their  own  seed  stock  by  growing  it  at  the  higher  moun- 
tain elevations  in  order  to  take  advantage  of  cool  growing  season 
temperatures.  Mulching  (43)  of  seed  plats  is  also  sometimes  practiced, 
the  influence  of  the  straw  or  other  mulch  material  being  to  maintain  a 
lower  average  soil  temperature  than  would  otherwise  be  available.  One 
reason  why  early  or  short-season  varieties  predominate  in  the  southern 
states  is  the  necessity  of  growing  and  maturing  the  crop  early  enough  to 
avoid  the  high  temperatures  of  mid-summer. 

Soil  Preferences. — Of  the  two  factors,  cHmate  and  soil,  the  latter  is 
undoubtedly  much  less  important  as  a  factor  limiting  jdeld,  than  the 
former.  The  influence  of  soil  on  potatoes  is  measured  in  yield,  earliness 
of  maturity,  eating  quality,  keeping  quahty  and  the  loss  from  disease. 
The  ideal  soil  for  potatoes  is  one  which  is  naturally  rich,  of  medium  tex- 


THE  POTATO  CROPS  279 

ture,  friable,  deep  and  not  highl}^  alkaline.  Extra  light  soils  are  not 
sufficiently  retentive  of  moisture  to  suppl}^  the  normal  water  requirements 
of  the  plant  and  are  usually  relatively  poor,  especially  in  humus.  Extra 
heavy  soils  when  wet  are  more  conducive  to  blight  rot  development  in  the 
tubers,  and  when  dry  are  subject  to  baking  and  generally  result  in 
greater  difficulty  in  digging  the  crop.  The  Wooster  series  and  the  Wash- 
burn series  of  loam  soils  on  which  the  famous  yields  are  produced  in 
Aroostook  County,  Maine,  being  of  medium  to  light  texture,  of  glacial 
drift  origin  and  naturally  well  supplied  with  humus,  are  ideal  for  this  crop. 
The  fairly  light  soils  of  northern  New  York,  Long  Island,  New  Jersey  and 
Virginia  all  produce  bright  skinned  potatoes  of  excellent  eating  quality. 
These  sandier  soils  are  inherently  lower  in  potash  than  the  heavier  soils 
farther  inland.  In  many  of  the  older  potato-growing  regions  along  the 
Atlantic  seaboard,  evidence  of  so-called  potash-hunger  has  been  shown 
where  little  potash  has  been  applied  in  recent  years. 

Rotations. — Except  in  a  few  important  potato-producing  regions  such 
as  Long  Island,  New  York,  the  eastern  shore  of  Virginia  and  in  the 
trucking  regions  of  the  South,  the  crop  is  rotated  in  cropping  systems 
varying  in  length  from  three  to  five  or  more  years.  Ideal  soil  and  market 
conditions  and  the  relatively  high  land  values  on  Long  Island  make  the 
continuous  production  of  potatoes  desirable  in  this  region.  In  recent 
years,  growers  have  depended  upon  winter-grown  green-manure  cover 
crops  of  rye  to  maintain  the  soil  humus  supply  necessary  for  the  crop 
under  these  conditions.  Generally,  however,  potatoes  follow  a  sod  crop 
in  the  rotation.  The  most  common  rotation  in  Maine  is  potatoes,  oats, 
clover,  while  in  New  York  it  is  potatoes,  oats,  hay  two  or  three  years. 
The  relatively  high  feeding  requirements  of  the  potato  makes  rotation 
desirable.  This  tends  to  prevent  soil  depletion  and  the  accumulation  of 
potato  disease  organisms  which  live  in  the  soil.  Macoun  (90)  has  shown 
that  clover  is  a  very  desirable  legume  crop  to  precede  potatoes.  This 
crop  adds  humus  in  a  desirable  form  and  has  a  beneficial  influence  on 
soil  texture.  In  the  more  common  4  to  6-year  rotations  of  potatoes, 
grain,  and  hay  2  to  4  years,  the  sod  residue  from  the  older  seedings 
preceding  potatoes  is  often  so  hght  as  to  be  of  small  benefit.  In  New 
York  (59)  the  yields  were  found  to  decrease  with  the  increase  in  length 
of  rotation.  These  low  yields  were  attributed  to  the  poor  quahty  and 
low  yield  of  humus  in  the  older  seedings.  Such  soil-infesting  potato 
insects  as  wire  worms  and  grubs  are  also  more  numerous  and  serious  when 
potatoes  follow  such  old  seedings.  In  regions  farther  west,  where  pota- 
toes are  rotated  with  such  crops  as  corn,  beets,  oats  and  alfalfa  the  longer 
rotations  have  given  the  highest  yields  (Holden  (73)  1920). 

Soil  Preparation. — Thoroughness  in  seed-bed  preparation  is  obviously 
important  from  the  fact  that  soil  structure,  moisture,  temperature,  aera- 
tion and  available  mineral  nutrients  are  all  more  or  less  dependent  upon 


280  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

it  and  the  shape,  quahty  and  yield  of  the  tubers  in  turn  dependent  on 
these  factors.  Heavy  soils  are  often  improved  in  structure  and  texture 
for  potatoes  by  growing  such  crops  as  rye  and  buckwheat.  The  tap-root 
of  the  latter  tends  to  loosen  the  lower,  less  pervious  strata  and  leaves  the 
entire  soil  surface  in  a  more  friable  condition.  Rye  produces  a  large 
amount  of  organic  material  in  a  relatively  short  time  and  has  the  advan- 
tage of  being  hardy  and  well  adapted  to  acid  and  poor  soils.  In  its 
decomposition  to  form  humus,  the  humic  acid  formed  tends  to  reduce  the 
alkalinity  in  soils  containing  the  potato  scab  organism  and  thus  reduces 
the  loss  from  this  disease.  When  the  crop  is  to  be  grown  in  long  rotation 
with  old  seedings  in  which  potato  insects  are  often  more  numerous,  corn 
may  profitably  precede  potatoes,  the  former  instead  of  the  latter  follow- 
ing sod.  In  plowing  under  coarse  corn  stubble  just  before  planting 
potatoes,  there  is  often  danger  that  the  undecomposed  layer  will  interfere 
with  the  upward  movement  of  water  and  thus  limit  the  crop.  Fall  plow- 
ing of  the  heavier  soils  and  of  soils  carrying  coarse  organic  material  is 
recommended.  Very  little  fall  plowing  is  commonly  done,  however, 
because  of  unfavorable  fall  weather  and  competition  with  other  farm 
work.  Shallow  soils  with  hardpan  layers  close  to  the  surface  can  be 
improved  for  potatoes  by  a  gradual  increase  in  depth  of  plowing  each 
year  to  enlarge  the  soil  area  suitable  for  tuber  development.  Fitting 
of  plowed  land  for  a  tilled  crop  of  this  kind  can  scarcely  be  overdone. 
Weeds  are  more  efficiently  controlled  by  thorough  harrowing  prior  to 
planting  than  by  the  much  more  costly  and  less  efficient  inter-row  tillage 
during  the  growing  season.  Thus  it  often  happens  that  better  final 
results  are  obtained  by  delaying  planting  until  such  time  as  the  seed  bed 
is  in  optimum  condition  than  by  early  planting  and  its  subsequent  diffi- 
culties in  weed  control  because  of  a  poor  seed  bed. 

Manures  and  Fertilizers. — The  heavy  feeding  requirements  of  the 
crop  and  the  relatively  large  gross  income  per  acre  from  it  are  factors 
which  make  the  use  of  large  applications  of  manure  and  fertilizer  usually 
not  only  necessary  but  profitable.  On  the  sandier  soils  in  the  older  potato 
regions  of  the  eastern  states,  amounts  of  fertilizer  ranging  from  500  to 
2,000  pounds  per  acre  are  commonly  applied.  On  the  heavier  soils 
farther  inland  and  particularly  in  such  important  potato  states  as  Michi- 
gan, Wisconsin  and  Minnesota  lighter  applications,  500  pounds  or  less, 
are  used. 

A  relatively  higher  grade  of  commercial  fertilizer  is  used  on  potatoes 
than  on  other  field  crops.  Judging  by  analyses  of  comparative  yields 
of  potatoes  and  corn  the  potato  requires  about  one-half  as  much  nitrogen 
and  twice  as  much  phosphorus  and  potassium  as  the  latter.  Nearly  all 
complete  potato  fertilizers  analyze  high  in  the  last  two  elements.  Before 
the  World  War,  2-8-10  was  the  analysis  commonly  used.  When  the  war 
prevented  the  use  of  so  much  potash,  growers  learned  that  equally  good 


THE  POTATO  CROPS 


281 


yields  could  be  obtained  with  less.  Potato  soils  had  apparently  become 
temporarily  stocked  with  a  surplus.  Recently,  such  analyses  as  3-8-6, 
4-8-4  and  2-8-6  have  become  common.  There  are  very  few  soils  natur- 
ally stocked  with  sufficiently  readily  available  potash  to  give  good  yields. 
Both  sulfate  and  chloride  or  muriate  forms  of  potash  are  used  and  experi- 
ments indicate  no  appreciable  difference  between  them  in  their  influence 
on  yields.  Muriate  of  potash  is  more  commonly  used  because  it  is 
cheaper  and  mqre  plentiful  in  the  market.  Comparative  tests  of  influ- 
ence on  quality  have  in  a  few  cases  shown  that  the  chlorine  in  muriate 
of  potash  has  reduced  the  quality  of  potatoes.  There  is,  however,  insuf- 
ficient evidence  on  this  point.  Woods  (184)  reported  the  results  of  a 
4-year  test  in  Maine  to  determine  the  effect  of  varying  amounts  of  potash 
on  yield.  Fifteen  hundred  pounds  per  acre  of  a  complete  fertiHzer  con- 
taining the  same  amounts  of  ammonia  and  phosphoric  acid  and  mixed 
with  no  potash,  with  300  pounds  of  salt  and  with  3,  5  and  7  per  cent  of 
potash  respectively  were  used.  Part  of  the  results  are  given  in  Table 
XXXVI. 

Table  XXXVI. — No  Potash  Experiment  with  Potatoes,  1915-1918 

(Yield  in  hundredweight  per  acre) 


1915 

1916 

1917 

1918 

Amount  of 

potash 

Series  1 

Series  1 

Series  2 

Series  2 

Average 

None 

182 

172 

131 

140 

123 

150 

None  +  salt 

193 

136 

144 

130 

151 

3  per  cent  K2O 

191 

254 

135 

150 

12s 

172 

5  per  cent  K2O 

191 

254 

131 

157 

137 

174 

7  per  cent  K2O 

198 

244 

139 

160 

134 

175 

Under  these  conditions,  salt  did  not  appear  to  liberate  potash  already 
in  the  soil  nor  did  it  pay  to  use  over  3  per  cent  of  potash.  Phosphatic 
fertilizers  used  alone  quite  generally  give  more  profitable  results  than 
any  other  single  kind  of  fertilizer. 

Time  and  method  of  applying  fertilizers  are  of  considerable  importance. 
When  planters  are  used,  the  fertilizer  is  commonly  applied  through  a 
fertilizer  attachment  just  ahead  of  the  seed  hopper  on  the  machine. 
This  leaves  the  fertilizer  just  beneath  the  seed  piece  with  a  slight  covering 
of  moist  earth  between  to  prevent  contact  and  burning  of  the  latter. 
When  planters  are  not  used,  grain  drills,  or  fertilizer  distributers  are 
common.  Sometimes  the  application  is  made  by  broadcasting  in  the 
open  furrow  just  prior  to  dropping  the  seed  by  hand.     This  may  give 


282  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

good  results  but  may  cause  burning  of  the  new  sprouts  as  they  develop. 
For  this  reason  it  is  seldom  advisable  to  drop  fertilizer  in  the  hill  with  the 
seed  piece.  Growers  in  Maine  commonly  apply  a  part  of  the  fertilizer 
through  the  planter  at  planting  time,  a  second  application  being  distrib- 
uted as  a  side  dressing  soon  after  the  plants  are  established.  Nitrate 
of  soda  is  usually  used  in  the  late  application  in  order  to  hasten  top 
growth.  Results  of  3  years'  experiment  at  the  Maine  Station  (185), 
indicate  that  when  as  much  as  1,500  pounds  of  fertilizer  are  used,  it  is 
fully  as  efficient  to  apph^  it  all  at  one  application  and  through  the  planter 
as  to  apply  it  in  two  appHcations,  or  broadcast.  Similar  results  were 
obtained  at  the  Storrs  (137),  Connecticut  Station  in  a  4-year  test. 
The  New  York  Station  (81)  comparing  drilling  with  broadcasting  in  a 
4  years'  test  on  Long  Island  obtained  a  difference  of  7.3  bushels  per  acre 
in  favor  of  drilling.  Apparently  the  drill  method  is  to  be  recommended 
when  the  additional  factor  of  cheaper  cost  of  application  with  the  planter 
is  considered. 

Stable  manure,  well  decomposed,  has  long  been  recognized  as  a  very 
desirable  form  of  organic  fertilizer  for  potatoes.  When  the  crop  is  grown 
on  a  small  scale,  it  is  still  commonly  used  as  a  top  dressing  to  the  sod 
just  prior  to  plowing.  In  regions  of  more  extensive  production,  however, 
the  supply  is  no  longer  adequate  for  the  entire  acreage.  The  most 
efficient  place  for  stable  manure  in  the  average  rotation  is  probably  as  a 
top  dressing  to  the  hay  crop  the  year  previous  to  breaking  up  sod  for 
potatoes.  Thus  applied,  it  increases  the  quality  and  yield  of  hay, 
becomes  well  incorporated  with  the  soil  and  of  a  more  available  form  for 
potatoes  and  is  less  likely  to  increase  scab  on  the  tubers.  Farm  manures, 
high  in  ammonia,  because  of  their  tendency  to  promote  activity  of 
the  scab  organism,  should  not  be  applied  directly  to  the  potato  crop. 

Seed. — The  majority  of  growers  in  the  leading  potato-growing  states 
produce  their  own  seed  potatoes,  only  renewing  from  outside  sources 
in  occasional  years.  In  contrast,  growers  on  Long  Island,  in  New  Jersej^, 
Virginia  and  the  southern  and  middle  western  states  quite  universally 
procure  seed  annually  from  sources  farther  north.  Middle  western 
and  Gulf  coast  states  secure  seed  potatoes  mainly  from  Minnesota, 
Wisconsin,  Montana,  the  Dakotas  and  the  Red  River  Valley  region  of 
Canada,  while  the  seed  used  on  Long  Island,  in  New  Jersey,  Virginia 
and  the  South  Atlantic  states  is  grown  mostly  in  the  Maritime  provinces 
of  Canada,  and  in  Maine,  Vermont  and  New  York.  This  practice  of 
using  northern-grown  seed  is  necessary  because  the  crop  as  grown  under 
the  hot,  growing-season  temperatures  of  the  South  is  so  devitalized  as  to 
render  it  unfit  for  seed.  What  is  known  as  second  crop  seed  is  grown 
to  some  extent  in  southern  states  by  planting,  late  in  the  summer,  north- 
ern-grown stock  which  has  been  held  in  cool  or  cold  storage.  Planted 
in  late  summer,  such  a  crop  develops  under  cooler  temperatures  and  thus 


THE  POTATO  CROPS 


283 


retains  sufficient  vitality  to  make  it  of  value  for  seed  the  next  year. 
Second  crop  seed  is  usually  immature  when  dug  and  is  therefore  low  in 
yield  and  relatively  expensive. 

The  quahty  of  seed  potatoes  depends  upon  such  factors  as  disease, 
storage  conditions,  and  soil  and  climatic  conditions  prevaihng  during 
growth.  Strains  of  seed  do  degenerate  or  "run-out"  from  such  causes  as 
the  incursion  of  non-parasitic  diseases  and  growth  and  storage  under 
unfavorable  temperatures.  Immaturity  in  seed  is  desirable  in  so  far 
as  it  results  in  less  sprout  development  during  storage  and  a  consequent 
greater  vigor  and  less  shrinkage  in  the  seed  at  planting  time.  Planting 
seed  stock  so  late  as  to  prevent  its  maturity  before  kilhng  frosts  in  the 
fall  results  in  a  more  desirable  type  of  immature  seed  than  would  result 
by  harvesting  seed  stock  planted  at  the  usual  time,  in  an  immature 
condition  during  mid-summer. 

The  influence  of  immaturity  of  seed  on  the  resulting  crop  is  shown  in 
the  results  of  4  years'  work  by  Zavitz  (188)  at  the  Ontario  Station  as 
given  in  Table  XXXVII. 

Table  XXXVII. — Results  from  Planting  Mature  and  Immature  Seed  Potatoes 
AT  THE  Ontario  Station  (Average  op  4  Years) 


Seed  potatoes  obtained  from 
the  crops  produced  from  the 
plantings  of  the  following 
dates  of  the  previous  year 


May  31 
June  14 
June  28 
July  12. 


Average  percentage  maturity  in 
resulting  crop  on  September  11th 


Average  yield  of  6  varieties 
(24  tests)  in  bu.  per  acre 


192.37 
194.80 
201.84 
219.46 


Although  the  increased  yield  due  to  immaturity  is  relatively  small, 
the  increase  is  consistent.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  crop  from 
immature  seed  was  somewhat  later  in  maturing  than  that  from  seed 
which  was  mature. 

Storage  of  seed  potatoes  is  an  important  factor  too  often  neglected 
in  common  practice.  Most  seed  potatoes  are  stored  in  house  cellars  of 
dirt  floor  and  stone-wall  construction.  The  average  temperature  is  often 
high  enough  to  promote  early  development  of  sprouts  and  as  a  result  the 
seed  is  badly  shrunken  and  low  in  vitality  by  planting  time.  Seed 
should  be  stored,  if  possible,  at  uniform  temperatures  ranging  from  34 
to  42  degrees  F.  Although  tubers  will  not  usually  suffer  damage  from 
freezing  at  temperatures  down  to  28  degrees  F.  (4)  without  refrigeration 
it  is  quite  impossible  to  maintain  this  low  range.  Low  temperature 
tends  to  reduce  respiration  and  thereby  reduces  the  rate  of  loss  of  soluble 
carbohydrates  and  also  checks  the  spread  of  tuber  diseases  in  storage. 


284  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

Normal  humidity  is  also  important  as  dry  air  increases  the  evaporation 
rate  while  excessive  humidity  promotes  the  development  of  storage 
diseases.  Uniformity  of  both  temperature  and  humidity  are  best  con- 
trolled by  proper  ventilation. 

Sun-sprouting  or  "greening"  of  seed  potatoes,  a  practice  more  com- 
mon in  Europe  than  in  America,  is  annually  becoming  more  common  as  its 
benefits  are  better  appreciated.  It  involves  exposure  of  the  seed  tubers 
on  the  ground  or  floor  to  moderate  or  subdued  light  for  a  period  of  about 
two  weeks  prior  to  planting  time.  During  this  time,  short,  green,  vigor- 
ous, disease-resistant  sprouts  are  developed  and  it  becomes  possible  to 
discard  those  tubers  which  develop  w(^ak  sprouts  or  no  sprouts  at  all. 
Sprouts  over  }i  inch  long  should  not  be  allowed  to  develop  because  of 
the  likelihood  of  their  being  broken  off  in  going  through  the  planter. 
Among  the  several  advantages  resulting  from  the  practice  of  greening 
are  increased  earliness,  increased  yield,  a  better  stand  of  plants  and  less 
disease.  Yield,  wholly  aside  from  its  increase  due  to  greater  vigor  of 
the  sprouts,  is  potentially  higher  because  of  the  greater  number  of  nodes 
and  stolons  which  develop  on  the  sprout  of  greened  seed  between  the 
seed  piece  and  the  soil  surface. 

Three  factors  determine  whether  seed  tubers  should  be  cut  or  planted 
whole,  namely:  (1)  Cost  of  labor  for  cutting,  (2)  cost  of  seed,  and  (3) 
relative  efficiency  of  cut  and  whole  seed.  Generally,  the  comparative 
costs  of  seed  and  labor  are  such  that  it  is  more  profitable  to  cut  seed 
than  to  plant  it  whole.  Relatively  little  seed  weighing  more  than  2 
ounces,  or  of  hen's-egg  size,  is  ever  planted.  Most  of  this  is  cut.  All 
other  factors  being  equal,  whole  is  better  than  cut  seed  because  it  is 
less  likely  to  rot  or  become  diseased  after  planting  and  because  it  will  not 
lose  vitality  through  bleeding  and  drying.  Whether  small  or  large  tubers 
are  the  better  for  seed  depends  principally  on  whether  the  small  tubers  are 
from  high-yielding  healthy  stock  or  only  representative  of  the  culls  and  small 
tubers  from  diseased  and  low-yielding  hills.  Stewart  (144)  has  recently 
reported  that  uncut  tubers  between  one  and  two  ounces  in  weight  are  at 
least  as  good  as,  and,  probably  better  than,  pieces  of  equal  weight  cut 
from  large  tubers  of  the  same  plant.  In  his  tests,  however,  a  high-yield- 
ing, healthy  strain  of  seed  was  used.  Most  experiments  comparing  yields 
from  large  and  small  tubers  have  resulted  in  both  total  and  marketable 
yield  in  favor  of  large  tubers.  Much  more  seed  per  acre  was  planted,  how- 
ever, when  the  large  seed  was  used. 

Size  of  seed  piece  has  been  shown  by  numerous  experiments  to  have 
a  very  pronounced  influence  on  yield.  Nearly  all  tests  which  compared 
one-eighth,  one-quarter,  one-half  and  whole  tuber  seed  pieces  have 
resulted  in  increased  total  yields  for  each  increase  in  size  of  seed  used. 
Most  of  these  tests  have  shown  that  as  the  size  of  the  piece  increases,  the 
number  of  stalks  per  hill  increases,  the  percentage  of  marketable  yield 


THE  POTATO  CROPS 


285 


decreases,  and  the  total  marketable  yield  increases  up  to  the  one-half 
tuber  size.  The  planting  of  large  whole  tubers  has  therefore,  not 
been  generally  profitable.  With  plants  spaced  equidistant  in  nearly  all 
of  these  experiments,  the  number  of  bushels  planted  on  an  acre  was 
increased  as  the  size  of  seed  piece  was  increased.  Therefore  the  increase 
in  yield  from  large  pieces  is  really  a  measure  of  the  influence  of  rate 
of  planting.  Among  the  recent  experiments,  the  results  obtained  by 
Zavitz  (188)  in  a  5-year  test  at  the  Ontario  Station  as  shown  in  Table 
XXXVIII  are  typical: 
Table  XXXVIII. — Size  of  Seed  Piece  Related  to  Yield  at  the  Ontario 
Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


Size   of    seed 
piece  planted, 


Eyes    per 
seed  piece 


Amount  of 

seed  used  per 

acre,  bu. 


Average  results  for  5  years  (10  tests) 


Percentage 

of  crop 
marketable 


Yield  per  acre,  bu. 


Marketable 


Total  less 
seed  used 


Vie 

1.3 

61.0 

36.8 

47.5 

46.2 

% 

2.6 

88.6 

78.8 

89.7 

87.1 

M 

5.2 

89.7 

98.4 

111.1 

105.9 

3^ 

10.3 

88.7 

109.4 

129.0 

118.7 

1 

20.6 

89.5 

129.9 

148.4 

127.8 

2 

41.2 

87.6 

149.7 

173.9 

132.7 

Emerson  (44)  in  Nebraska,  made  a  test  of  this  factor  in  which  the 
amount  of  seed  per  acre  was  the  same  for  all  sizes  of  seed  piece.  Planting 
eighth,  quarter  and  half-tuber  seed  pieces,  6,  12  and  24  inches  apart, 
respectively,  he  used  18  bushels  of  seed  per  acre  in  each  plat.  This  gave 
the  highest  total  yield  per  acre  from  the  quarter-tuber  pieces  and  the 
lowest  total  yield  from  the  half  tubers.  /Apparently  the  most  efficient 
way  to  use  a  given  amount  of  seed  is  to  cuTit  into  pieces  about  one  ounce 
in  size  and  plant  it  relatively  close  rather  than  to  use  larger  pieces  and 
plant  them  farther  apart.    ) 

Many  of  the  older  growers  pay  special  attention  to  number  of  eyes  on 
the  seed  piece  when  cutting  seed.  This  would  be  important  if  pieces  as 
small  as,  or  smaller  than,  one  ounce  were  to  be  used  in  order  to  insure  at 
least  one  good  eye  to  the  piece.  But  since  yield  is  influenced  mainly  by 
size  of  seed  piece  irrespective  of  number  of  eyes  as  shown  in  Table 
XXXVIII,  the  question  of  number  of  eyes  becomes  of  only  minoi* 
importance.  Ballou  (9)  in  Ohio  found  that  as  the  number  of  eyes  on 
the  seed  increased,  the  number  of  stalks  per  hill  increased  and  the  yield  of 
unmarketable  tubers  also  increased.  However,  he  also  obtained  an 
increase  in  marketable  yield  with  each  increase  in  number  of  eyes. 
Whipple  (178)  thinned  plats  of  several  varieties  in  Montana  to  one  stalk 
per  hill  and  reported  a  very  small  increase  in  marketable  yield  with 


2^6  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

practically  no  difference  in  total  yield.  The  most  important  factor  in 
cutting  seed  appears  therefore  to  be  that  of  obtaining  a  sufficiently  large 
piece  to  insure  at  least  one  vigorous  stalk  and  that  the  piece  may  not  dry 
out  or  weaken  even  under  adverse  soil  conditions  between  planting  time 
and  the  complete  establishment  of  the  plant.  Chunky  pieces  are  most 
satisfactory  as  they  are  less  likely  to  break  or  dry  out,  and  they  feed 
through  the  machine  planters  better  than  slender  pieces. 

When  seed  must  be  stored  for  a  week  or  more  after  cutting,  it  is  a 
desirable  practice  to  dust  the  cut  seed  to  prevent  loss  of  moisture  from 
the  cut  surfaces  and  to  prevent  heating  of  such  seed.  When  seed  can 
be  planted  at  once  after  cutting,  as  is  generally  true,  dusting  is  probably 
not  justified.  Such  materials  as  land  plaster  or  gypsum,  hydrated  lime, 
sifted  wood  ashes,  road  dust  and  sulfur  flour  are  used.  Of  these,  land 
plaster  which  is  cheap  and  probably  the  most  adhesive  is  used  most 
commonly.  Holding  cut  seed  in  order  to  thoroughly  dry  the  cut  surfaces 
before  planting  is  not  recommended. 

Planting.-TuAverage  date  of  the  last  killing  frost  in  spring,  soil  type,  and 
type  or  variety  to  be  grown  are  the  factors  which  really  determine  the  best 
time  to  plant  potatoes.  ^  Planting  is  usually  earlier  on  light  soils  at  low 
elevations  than  on  heavy  soils  at  high  elevations.  Since  prices  are  usually 
higher  on  the  early  market  than  on  the  late,  early  planting  is  more 
important  with  early  varieties  than  with  late  varieties.  If  possible, 
potatoes  should  be  so  planted  as  to  bring  the  period  of  blossoming  and 
tuber-setting  during  a  time  when  weather  conditions  are  optimum. 
Hot,  dry  weather  at  this  critical  period  in  the  life  of  the  plant,  seriously 
interferes  with  the  setting  of  tubers  and  consequently  with  the  ultimate 
crop.  Under  average  conditions  and  with  most  main-crop  varieties, 
tubers  are  formed  about  6  weeks  after  the  planting  date.  In  the  leading 
potato-producing  states,  the  average  date  of  planting  varies  from  May 
15  to  June  15.  Thus  July  weather  is  usually  very  influential  on  potato 
yields. 

Although  probably  more  than  half  the  entire  potato  acreage  of  this 
country  is  still  planted  by  hand,  machine  planters  which  drop  seed  pieces 
automatically  are  annually  becoming  more  common.  The  larger  acreages 
in  regions  of  fairly  level  topography  and  few  stones  are  now  quite 
generally  machine  planted.  Of  the  two  distinct  types  of  planters  now 
used,  one  requires  two  men,  the  other  one,  for  its  operation.  The  two- 
man  or  platform  type  which  usually  costs  a  little  more  than  the  picker 
type  and  is  more  expensive  to  operate  because  of  the  extra  man  required, 
is  expected  to  produce  a  more  nearly  perfect  stand  of  plants  than  the  latter. 
Neither  type,  however,  can  be  used  to  plant  in  checkrows.  The  relative 
merits  of  the  checkrow  and  the  drill  systems  of  planting  are  determined 
by  such  factors  as  cost  of  labor,  available  mineral  nutrients  and  moisture, 
value  of  land,  and  weed  control.     The  last  of  these  is  most  important. 


THE  POTATO  CROPS 


287 


Under  conditions  of  hilly  topography  and  heavy  soil,  weed  control  is 
often  facilitated  by  planting  in  checks  to  allow  cross  cultivation.  Under 
more  favorable  conditions,  weeds  can  be  as  efficiently  controlled  and  yields 
increased  b}^  planting  in  drills.  There  are  more  plants  and  usually  more 
seed  used  on  an  acre  under  drill  than  under  checkrow  planting.  Because 
of  this  increased  stand  of  plants  and  amount  of  seed,  yields  are  commonly 
higher  on  fields  planted  in  drills.  The  results  of  a  study  made  by  the 
Cornell  (59)  Station  on  947  farms  in  New  York  are  reported  in  Table 
XXXIX. 


Table  XXXIX. — Relation  of, Planting  System  to  Yield  on  947  Faums- 

New  York 


Planted  in  drills 

Planted  in  checkrows 

Region 

Number 

of 

farms 

Average 
yield  per 
acre,  bu. 

Average 
amount  of 
seed  used 
per  acre, 
bu. 

Number 

of 

farms 

Average 
yield  per 
acre,  bu. 

Average 
amount  of 
seed  used 
per  acre, 
bu. 

Steuben  County  1912 

Monroe  County  1913 

Franklin  and  Clinton  coun- 
ties 1913 

101 
221 

54 
376 

153.0 

128.5 

188.4 
156.6 

12.2 

13.2 
14.5 
13.3 

251 

77 

243 
571 

129.2 
120.6 

177.2 

142.3 

9.2 
10.2 

11  4 

Total 

Average 

10.3 

The  above  data  indicate  that  an  average  of  3  bushels  more  seed  per 
acre  are  used  under  the  drill  method  in  New  York.  The  average  number 
of  bushels  of  seed  used  in  most  of  the  leading  potato  states  varies  between 
10  bushels  and  15  bushels  per  acre.  The  majority  of  station  experiments 
indicate  that  as  many  as  18  bushels  of  seed  could  more  profitabl}^  be  used. 
In  Great  Britain  and  the  countries  of  western  Europe  as  much  as  25  to  35 
bushels  of  seed  per  acre  is  common.  In  those  countries,  potato  land  is 
relatively  expensive  and  labor  relatively  cheap.  Under  such  conditions, 
hand  tillage  can  be  economically  used.  In  regions  where  mineral  nutrients 
and  moisture  are  hkely  to  be  limited,  wider  spacing  of  plants  and  less  seed 
per  acre  are  recommended  than  in  regions  where  growing  conditions  are 
more  favorable.  Stuart  (150)  has  figures  showing  the  relation  of  size  of 
seed  piece  and  spacing  of  plants  on  the  amount  of  seed  required  to  plant 
an  acre.  His  tabulation  shows  that  more  than  54  bushels  of  seed  would  be 
required  to  plant  an  acre  if  2-ounce  seed  pieces  were  planted  as  close  as  8 
inches  apart  in  rows  30  inches  apart.  But  if  one-half-ounce  seed  pieces 
were  planted  36  inches  apart  in  rows  48  inches  apart,  only  1.9  bushels  of 
seed  would  be  required.  The  common  distance  between  rows  is  3  feet. 
In  checkrow  planting  3  feet  is  the  usual  distance  between  plants,  while  in 


288  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

drills  the  average  spacing  is  between  12  and  18  inches.  Early  varieties 
which  produce  smaller  foliage  growth  may  be  planted  much  closer  than 
late  varieties.  The  decrease  in  yield  due  to  missing  hills  is  not  in  abso- 
lute proportion  to  the  number  of  such  missing  hills.  Stewart  (145)  in 
New  York  found  that  about  one-half  of  the  loss  in  yield  due  to  a  misisng 
hill  is  made  up  by  the  two  hills  adjacent  to  the  vacant  space. 

Depth  of  planting  varies  mainly  with  soil  type  and  with  the  system  of 
culture.  Although  4  inches  is  about  average,  the  depth  is  commonly 
more  shallow  on  heavy  soils  and  deeper  on  light  soils.  Irrespective  of 
depth  planted,  tubers  tend  to  develop  at  the  4-inch  depth.  This  is 
due  to  the  fact  that  conditions  of  soil  moisture  and  temperature  are 
optimum  for  growth  at  this  depth.  On  the  heavier  soils,  the  seed  is  com- 
monly planted  quite  shallow  and  a  system  of  gradual  to  steep  ridging  is 
practiced  during  the  growing  season.  This  provides  against  injury  to 
the  crop  from  excessive  rainfall  and  makes  digging  easier.  Extreme 
ridging  is  practiced  mainly  in  Maine,  western  New  York,  in  the  South 
and  in  the  irrigated  sections  of  the  West.  Elsewhere  more  nearly  level 
culture  is  practiced.  In  regions  where  the  soil  is  light  and  rainfall  is 
likely  to  be  insufficient,  ridging  is  sometimes  overdone  with  the  result 
that  the  plants  dry  out  and  growth  is  retarded  at  mid-season. 

Cultivation. — The  potato,  like  all  other  intertilled  crops,  responds  to 
good  cultivation.  But  tillage  may  be,  and  frequently  is,  overdone. 
Probably  more  frequently,  however,  it  is  either  insufficient  or  at  least 
inefficient.  Of  the  two  primary  objects  of  cultivation,  moisture  conser- 
vation by  a  soil  mulch  and  weed  control,  the  latter  is  much  the  more 
important.  Early  season  cultivation  is  of  benefit  not  only  in  weed  control 
and  improved  tilth  but  also  in  conserving  moisture  necessary  to  the  young 
plant.  Later,  however,  when  the  surface  roots,  and  the  shade  furnished 
by  the  foliage  are  sufficient  to  reduce  the  evaporation  from  the  soil 
surface,  the  principal  benefit  comes  from  weed  control.  Therefore,  deep 
and  frequent  tillage  early  in  the  season  and  shallow  infrequent  tillage 
late  in  the  season  are  recommended.  \  The  experiments  of  both  Stone 
(146)  and  Emerson  (44)  indicated -^at  from  6  to  9  cultivations  a 
season  were  more  effective  than  either  a  greater  or  less  number.  Fewer 
cultivations  would  not  control  weeds  while  a  greater  frequency 
usually  resulted  in  injury  to  the  plant  late  in  the  season.  Time  of  culti- 
vation is,  after  all,  more  important  than  frequency.  Tillage  is  of  little 
or  no  benefit  and  may  be  injurious  after  the  tubers  have  set  and  the  foliage 
covers  the  soil  surface. 

Varieties. — The  various  and  promiscuous  methods  by  which  potato 
varieties  have  come  into  existence  have  resulted  in  the  production  of  far 
too  many  varieties  of  uncertain  origin  and  commercial  value,  and  in 
much  confusion  in  nomenclature.  Many  of  our  present  so-called  varieties 
are  the  results  of  selection  for  change  or  improvement  in  type  of  tuber, 


THE  POTATO  CROPS  289 

or  yield.  Many  are  the  results  of  simply  renaming  old  varieties.  There 
are  three  methods  by  which  varieties  have  distinct  origin,  namely, 
crossing,  mutation,  and  production  of  seedlings  from  spontaneous 
seed  balls.  Of  these  three,  varieties  from  seed  balls  are  most  common. 
Such  standard  varieties  as  Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  Norcross,  Burbank, 
Rural  New  Yorker  No.  2,  Carman  No.  3,  Early  Rose  and  Early  Ohio 
originated  directly  from  seedlings.  Green  Mountain  and  Delaware  are 
examples  of  origin  by  crossing  while  Pearl,  White  Ohio  and  White  Triumph 
are  notable  examples  of  the  results  of  mutation.  Varieties  Number  9 
and  Heavyweight  are  the  products  of  selection  for  increased  yield  from 
older  varieties  of  the  Rural  type.  The  fact  that  most  of  the  varieties 
which  were  popular  sixty  years  ago  are  no  longer  grown  extensively  has 
led  to  a  popular  impression  that  varieties  "run  out"  because  of  senility. 
Such  varieties  as  Garnet  Chili,  Black  Chenango,  Cowhorn,  Blue  Mercer, 
Meshannock  and  Early  Peachblow  are  scarcely  found  today.  There 
seems  to  be  no  valid  evidence,  however,  that  they  have  disappeared 
because  of  old  age.  High-yielding  strains  of  each  may  still  be  found  in 
cultivation,  but  the  present  potato  market  is  against  such  colored- 
skinned,  ill-shaped,  deep-eyed  and  poor-quahty  varieties.  The  majority 
of  evidence  indicates  that  neither  varieties  nor  strains  degenerate  with 
senility  alone,  but  rather  that  seed  stocks  do  become  more  or  less  worth- 
less as  they  become  badly  affected  with  such  non-parasitic  or  virus 
diseases  as  leaf  roll  and  mosaic  (128).  Unfavorable  growing  season  and 
storage  environment  are  also  considered  to  be  contributing  factors. 

Although  hundreds  of  varieties  are  being  grown  throughout  the  United 
States,  the  commercially  important  ones  can  be  associated  into  groups 
on  the  basis  of  similarity  of  foliage  and  tuber  characters  and  season 
of  maturity  of  the  varieties  within  each  group.  Such  a  group  classifica- 
tion and  description  has  been  made  by  Stuart  (151).  His  classification 
key  follows: 

Group  1 — Cobbler. 

Tubers:  Roundish;  skin  creamy  white. 

Sprouts:  Base,  leaf  scales,  and  tips  slightly  or  distinctly  tinged  with  reddish- 
violet  or  magenta.     In  many  cases  the  color  is  absent. 
Flowers :  Light  rose-purple ;  under  intense  heat  may  be  almost  white. 
Group  2 — Triumph. 

Tubers :  Roundish ;  skin  creamy  white  with  more  or  less  numerous  splashes 

of  red,  or  carmine,  or  solid  red ;  maturing  very  early. 
Sprouts :  Base,  leaf  scales,  and  tips  more  or  less  deeply  suffused  with  reddish- 
violet. 
Flowers:  Very  light  rose-purple. 
Group  3 — Early  Michigan. 

Tubers:  Oblong  or  elongate-flattened;  skin  white  or  creamy  white,  occa- 
sionally suffused  with  pink  around  bud-eye  cluster  in  Early  Albino. 

19 


290  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

Sprouts:  Base  light  rose-purple;  tips  creauij'  white  or  light  rose-purple. 

Flowers:  White. 
Group  4 — Rose. 

Tubers:  Rountiish  oblong  to  elongate-flattened  or  spindle-shape  flattened; 
skin,  flesh-colored  or  pink,  or  (in  the  case  of  the  White  Rose)  white. 

Sprouts:  Base  and  internodes  creamy  white  to  deep  rose-lilac;  leaf  scales 
and  tips  cream  to  rose-lilac. 

Flowers:  White  in  sections  1  and  2;  rose-hlac  in  section  3. 
Group  5 — Early  Ohio. 

Tubers:  Round,  oblong,  or  ovoid;  skin,  flesh-colored  or  light  pink,  with 
numerous  small,  raised,  russet  dots. 

Sprouts:  Base,  leaf  scales,  and  tips  more  or  less  deej)ly  suffused  with  carmine- 
lilac  to  violet-lilac  or  magenta. 

Flowers:  White. 
Group  6 — Hebron. 

Tubers:  Elongated,  somewhat  flattened,  sometimes  spindle-shaped;  skin 
creamy  white,  more  or  less  clouded  with  flesh-color  or  light  pink. 

Sprouts:  Base  creamy  white  to  light-lilac;  leaf  scales  and  tips  pure  mauve 
to  magenta,  but  color  sometimes  absent. 

Flowers:  White. 
Group  7 — Burbank. 

Tubers:  Long,  cyHndrical  to  somewhat  flattened,  inclined  to  be  slightly 
spindle  shaped;  skin  white  to  Hght  creamy  white,  smooth  and  glistening 
or  deep  russet  in  the  case  of  section  2. 

Sprouts:  Base  creamy  white  or  faintly  tinged  with  magenta;  leaf  scales  and 
tips  usually  lightly  tinged  with  magenta. 

Flowers:  White. 
Group  8 — Green  Mountain. 

Tubers:  Moderately  to  distinctly  oblong,  usually  broad,  flattened;  skin 
a  dull  creamy  or  light  russet  color,  frequently  having  russet-brown  splashes 
toward  the  seed  end. 

Sprouts :  Section  1 ;  base,  leaf  scales,  and  tips  creamy  white :  Section  2 ;  base 
usually  white,  occasionally  tinged  with  magenta;  leaf  scales  and  tips 
tinged  with  lilac  to  magenta. 

Flowers:  White. 
Group  9 — Rural. 

Tubers:  Broadly  round-flattened  to  short  oblong,  or  distinctly  oblong- 
flattened;  skin  creamy  white,  or  deep  russet  in  the  case  of  section  2. 

Sprouts:  Base  dull  white;  leaf  scales  and  tips  violet-purple  to  pansy-violet. 

Flowers:  Central  portion  of  corroUa  deep  violet,  with  the  purple  growing 
Hghter  toward  the  outer  portion;  five  points  of  corolla  white,  or  nearly  so. 
Group  10 — Pearl. 

Tubers:  Round-flattened  to  heart-shape  flattened,  usually  heavilj^  should- 
ered; skin  dull  white,  dull  russet,  or  brownish-white  in  section  1  or  a  deep 
bluish-purple  in  section  2. 

Sprouts:  Section  1;  base,  leaf  scales  and  tips  usually  faintly  tinged  with 
lilac:  Section  2;  base,  leaf  scales,  and  tips  vinous  mauve. 

Flowers:  White. 


THE  POTATO  CROPS 


291 


Group  11 — Peachblow. 

Tubers:  Round  to  round-flattened  or  round-oblong;  skin  creamy  white, 
splashed    with    crimson   or   soHd    pink;    eyes    usually   bright    carmine. 
Includes  some  early-maturing  varieties. 
Sprouts:  Base,  leaf  scales,  and  tips  more  or  less  suffused  with  reddish-violet. 
Flowers:  Purple. 

Each  group  in  the  above  classification  has  been  named  from  the  variety 
within  the  group  which  most  nearly  represents  the  group  as  a  whole  and 
which  is  considered  perhaps  most  important  commercially.  Not  all  of 
these  groups  are  equally  important,  the  Green  Mountain  and  the  Rural 
being  produced  extensively  throughout  the  leading  potato  states,  while 
such  groups  as  the  Early  Michigan  and  the  Hebron  are  nowhere  very 
important. 

The  leading  standard  varieties,  the  season  of  maturity  of  varieties 
included  and  the  region  of  commercial  importance  of  each  group  are  given 
in  Table  XL. 


Table  XL. 


-Standard  Varieties,  Region  of  Production  and  Season  of 
Maturity  of  Potato  Groups 


Season  of 

Group 

Standard  varieties 

maturity  of 

Principal  regions  of  produc- 

varieties within 

tion 

the  group 

1.  Cobbler..... 

Irish  Cobbler 

Early 

New    England,     Middle 

Early  Eureka 

Atlantic      states,      Virginia 

Potentate 

and  the  Carolinas. 

Flourball 

2.  Triumph 

Bliss     Triumph     or     Stray 

^'ery  early 

Gulf    states,     Oklahoma, 

Beauty 

Arkansas,      New      Mexico, 

Quick    Lunch    or     Noroton 

Minnesota     and    Wisconsin. 

Beauty 

White  Triumph 

■ 

3.  Early  Michigan 

Early  Michigan 

Early 

Not  important  commercially. 

Early  Puritan 

Northwestern   U.  S.  mainly. 

Early  Albino 

4.   Rose 

Section  1 

Early,  medium, 
late  and  very 

Northeastern    U.  S.  mainly. 

Eariy  Rose 

Early  Norther 

late 

Burpee's  Extra  Early 

Early  Thorobred 

Early  Vermont 

Late  Rose 

Evergreen 

Section  2 

Early,  medium 

Early  Manistee 

and  late 

Improved  Manistee 

Late  Manistee 

King 

Spalding's  Rose  4  or  Pride 

of  the  West 

Section  3 

Medium 

New  Scotch  Rose 

Seneca  Beauty 

292 


VEGETABLE  CROPS 


Table  XL. 


-Standard  Varieties,  Region  of  Production  and  Season  of 
Maturity  of  Potato  Groups — Continued. 


Season  of 

Group 

Standard  varieties 

maturity  of 

varieties  within 

the  group 

Principal  regions  of  produc- 
tion 

5.  Early  Ohio 

Early  Ohio 

Very  early 

Red  River  Valley  of  Canada, 

Early  Six-weeks 

Minnesota  and   North 

Ohio  Junior 

Dakota,    Montana,   Kansas 
and  Nebraska. 

6.  Hebron 

Beauty  of  Hebron 
Early  Bovee 

Early  and  med- 

Not commercially  important. 
New   England   and    Middle 

ium 

Crown  Jewel 

Atlantic  states  mainly. 

New  Queen 

7.  Burbank 

Section  1 

Medium 

Pacific     Coast     and     Inter- 

Burbank  or  Burbank  Seed- 

mountain   states    and    irri- 

ling 

gated  lands  of  the  West. 

Pride  of  Multnomah 

Section  2 

Russet  Burbank 

California      or      Colorado 
Russet 

Netted  Gem 

8.  Green  Mountain 

Green  Mountain 

Medium 

Ontario,  Quebec  and   Mara- 

Norcross 

time  provinces   of   Canada, 

Carman  No.  1 

New    England   and   Middle 

State  of  Maine 

Atlantic    states,    Michigan, 

Gold  Coin 

Wisconsin    and    Minnesota. 

Mill's  Pride  or  Mill's  Prize 

Delaware 

Lincoln 

White  Mountain 

Ruloff 

Green  Mountain  Jr. 

9.  Rural 

Section  1 

Late 

New     York,      Pennsylvania, 

Rural  New  Yorker  No.  2 

Ohio,  Michigan,  Wiscon.sin, 

Carman  No.  3 

Minnesota    and    Colorado. 

Sir  Walter  Raleigh 

Number  9 

Heavyweight 

Noxall 

White  Giant 

Million  Dollar 

Dooley 

Section  2 

Dibble's  Russet 

Late  Petoskey 

Rural  Russet 

10.  Pearl 

Section  1 

Medium      and 

Colorado,    Idaho    and    adja- 

Pearl or  Peerless 

late 

cent  states.     Some  Peerless 

Peoples 

on  muck  in  New  York. 

Section  2 

Blue  Victor 

11.  Peachblow 

Early  Peachblow 

Early,  medium 

Colorado,   Maryland  and  Vir- 

Jersey Peachblow 

and  late 

ginia. 

McCormick 

Round  Pinkeye 

Lookout  Mountain 

THE  POTATO  CROPS  293 

The  choice  of  a  variety  for  a  given  locality  should  be  made  on  the 
basis  of  such  factors  as  soil  type,  average  growing  season  temperature, 
and  market  preference.  Most  of  the  varieties  in  each  group  are  shnilar 
not  only  in  vine  and  tuber  characters,  but  also  in  respect  to  soil  and 
cHmatic  adaptation  and  susceptibility  to  disease.  Thus  the  Green 
Mountain,  the  Hebron  and  the  Cobbler  groups  of  varieties  require  ideal 
growing  conditions  of  soil  and  climate  and  are  relatively  susceptible  to 
disease  while  varieties  of  the  Burbank,  the  Rural  and  the  Peachblow 
groups  are  less  affected  by  adverse  environment  and  are  more  disease- 
resistant  than  other  groups.  In  New  York  where  climatic  conditions 
are  often  favorable  to  the  development  of  late  blight,  the  Rural  group  is 
better  adapted  to  the  heavier  soils  than  the  Green  Mountain.  Such  soils 
are  more  subject  to  baking  under  droughty  conditions  and  more  conducive 
to  rot  in  the  tubers  in  wet  seasons  and  under  these  conditions,  the  Rural 
varieties  have  been  found  to  rot  less  and  to  yield  more  than  those  of  the 
Green  Mountain  group.  Varieties  of  the  Rural  group  also  blossom  and 
set  tubers  about  ten  days  to  two  weeks  later  than  Green  Mountain  varie- 
ties. This  difference  might  easily  have  a  bearing  on  the  comparative 
influence  of  weather  on  tuber  setting,  between  varieties  of  the  two  groups. 

A  variety  to  be  popular  on  most  markets  today  must  have  white- 
skinned  tubers  with  few,  shallow  eyes  and  the  tubers  must  be  rather  short, 
flat  and  of  high  starch  content.  Colored  skinned,  deep-eyed  elongated 
tuber  varieties  are  no  longer  popular  except  in  the  case  of  some  early 
varieties  on  a  few  markets. 

Most  variety  tests  have  been  of  very  limited  value  because  of  (1) 
their  short  duration,  (2)  too  few-  strains  of  the  leading  varieties  con- 
cerned, (3)  the  very  limited  and  local  significance  of  the  results  and  (4) 
the  exaggerated  conclusions  drawn.  Strain  tests  of  the  leading  standard 
varieties  for  a  given  region  are  of  much  more  value,  in  that  they  assist 
the  grower  in  locating  and  the  experiment  station  in  developing  high- 
yielding  seed  stocks. 

Relatively  httle  significance  attaches  to  potato  variety  names. 
Of  most  importance,  is  the  choice  of  a  potato  type  or  group  adapted  to 
the  particular  soil,  climate  and  market  and  thereafter  the  choice  of  a 
high-yielding  strain  of  seed  of  some  standard  variety  of  this  type. 
Whether  a  strain  of  seed  thus  procured  will  remain  profitable,  depends 
upon  its  care  and  selection  in  both  field  and  storage  to  maintain  its  yield 
and  to  protect  it  from  disease. 

Diseases. — The  potato  is  probably  subject  to  more  diseases  than  most 
other  vegetables.  Only  a  few  of  these,  however,  are  usually  very  serious 
in  any  one  section  of  the  country.  Those  which  depend  for  their  prev- 
alence or  severity  on  weather  conditions  may  be  serious  one  year  and 
inconspicuous  the  next.  Other  diseases  not  influenced  by  weather,  may 
be  present  in  more  or  less  uniform  degree  every  year.     Some  diseases 


294 


VEGETABLE  CROPS 


are  caused  by  fungi,  some  by  bacteria,  some  by  slime  molds  and  some 
others  are  presumed  to  be  non-parasitic.  Some  attack  the  foliage  only, 
some  the  tubers  only  and  some  both.  The  majority  of  potato  troubles 
present  in  this  country  have  been  introduced  from  Europe. 

A  classification  of  potato  diseases  on  the  bases  of  type,  portion  of 
plant  directly  affected,  regions  of  principal  occurence,  method  of  hiber- 
nation and  principal  control  methods  is  given  in  Table  XLI. 


Table  XLI. — A  Classification  of  Potato  Diseases 


Portion  of 

Method 

Disease 

Type 

plant 
directly 
affected 

Regions  of  occur- 
rence in  U.  S. 

j 

of 
hiberna- 
tion 

Control 

measures 

Late     blight     (Phytoph- 

Fungous 

Foliage   and 

1 
Northeastern  U.  S. 

In  seed 

Bordeaux   mix- 

thora rr.festans). 

tubers 

ture  5-5-50 

Early  blight  (Aliernaria 

Fungous 

Foliage 

Southern  U.  S.  and 

In  trash 

Bordeaux    mix- 

solani). 

warmer  regions 

in  field 

ture  5-5-50 

Fusarium  wilt  (Fusarium 

Fungous 

Foliage   and 

General 

In   seed 

Clean  seed  and 

oxysporuin). 

tubers 

and  soil 

crop    rotation 

Fusarium    dry    rot     (as 

Fungous 

Tubers 

General 

In   seed 

Clean  seed  and 

above). 

and  soil 

crop    rotation 

Verticillium  wilt  iVerti- 

Fungous 

Foliage    and 

General 

In   seed 

Clean  seed  and 

cillium  alhoatrum). 

tubers 

and  soil 

crop     rotation 

Yellow  dwarf 

Fungous 

Foliage    and 

Northeastern  U.  S. 

In  soil 

Clean  seed  and 

tubers 

in  cooler  portions 

crop  rotation 

Black-leg  (Bacillus  phy- 

Bacterial 

Foliage    and 

Maine  and  adjacent 

In  seed 

Clean  seed  and 

tophthorus). 

tubers 

territory 

seed    treat- 

ment 

Wart  (Synchilrium  endo- 

Fungous 

Tubers 

Mining  districts  of 

In   seed 

Long  crop  rota- 

bioticum). 

Pcnn.  mainly 

and  soil 

tion  and  clean 
seed 

Bacterial  soft  rots 

Bacterial 

Tubers 

General      following 

In   seed 

Avoid    bruising 

blight    rot    or    in- 

in stor- 

stored    tubers 

jury 

age 

Bacterial    wilt    (Bacillus 

Bacterial 

Foliage    and 

Southern    U.    S. 

General 

Control  insects 

solanacearum). 

tubers 

mostly 

and  eliminate 
diseased 
plants 

Silver    scurf    (Spondylo- 

Fungous 

Tubers 

Eastern  U.  S. 

On  seed 

Clean  seed  and 

cladium  atrovirens). 

seed  treat- 
ment 

Rhizoctoniose  (Corticium 

Fungous 

Tubers,  new 

General 

On  seed 

Clean  seed, 

vayum). 

sprouts  and 

and  in 

crop    rotation 

base   of 

soil 

and    seed 

stems 

treatment 
with  corrosive 
sublimate  4 
oz.  to  30  gal. 
water 

Common   scab    (Actino- 

Bacterial 

Tubers 

General 

On  seed 

As    for    rhizoc- 

myces chromogenus). 

and  in 

toniose 

soil 

Powdery  scab   (Spongo-    Slime  mold 

Tubers 

Very  slight  in  New 

On  seed 

As    for    rhizoc- 

spora subterranea). 

England 

and  in 
soil 

toniose 

Spindling  sprout    

Non-parasitic 

Sprout 
growth  from 
tubors 

General 

Seed 

Seed  selection 
and  good  stor- 
age 

THE  POTATO  CROPS  295 

Table  XLI. — A  Classification  ob^  Potato  Diseases — Continued. 


Type 


Portion  of 

plant 

directly 

affected 


1  Method  j 
Regions  of  occur-  of  Control 

rence  in  U.  S.         hiberna-l        measures 
tiod     I 


Streak 

Mosaic 

Curly  dwarf .  .  .  . 

Leaf-roll 

Net  necrosis .  .  . 
Tip-burn 

Arsenical  injury 


Bacterial 
Non-parasitic 

Non-parasitic 

Non-parasitic 
Non-parasitic 
Physiological 

Physiological 


Stems  and 
leaf  petioles 
Foliage 


Foliage 

Foliage 
Tuber 

Leaf  tips  and 
margins 

Leaves 
burned  by 
free  arsenic 


General 

Not  well 

known 

General    except    in 

In  seed 

Rural  varieties 

General    except    in 

In  seed 

Rural  varieties 

General 

In  seed 

General 

In  seed 

General 

None 

Where    improperly 

None 

made   arsenical 

sprays  used 

Not  well  known 

Seed  from  clean 
fields  and  aph- 
is control 

As  for  mosaic 

As  for  mosaic 

Clean  seed 

Bordeaux  mix- 
ture as  for 
bUght 

Use  excess  of 
lime  with 
arsenical 


The  more  prominent  symptoms  of  and  the  principal  control  measures 
for  a  few  of  the  most  important  potato  diseases  are  discussed  in  the 
following  paragraphs. 

Late  Blight  {Phytophthora  infestans). — This  is  probably  most 
serious  of  all  potato  diseases.  It  is  most  serious  in  wet  seasons,  since 
moist  conditions  are  necessary  for  the  germination  and  spread  of  the 
spores  of  the  causal  organism.  It  attacks  the  foliage  at  any  point 
and  is  not  confined  to  the  margins  or  tips  of  the  leaves  as  in  tip-burn. 
The  latter  is  very  often  confused  with  blight  by  even  experienced  growers. 
Blight-affected  areas  on  the  leaves  are  water-soaked  in  appearance  and 
usually  show  a  whitish  mold  around  the  margin  on  the  under  surface. 
Since  the  blight  organism  does  not  live  over  in  the  soil  nor  on  dead  tissue, 
the  initial  infection  is  from  the  seed  tuber  which  shows  the  disease  in  the 
form  of  a  reddish-brown  dry  rot.  Spores  from  the  affected  stem  may 
come  in  contact  with  new  leaf  growth  and  thereafter  spread  from  plant 
to  plant  or  from  field  to  field  by  wind,  rain  or  other  carriers.  Thorough 
spraying  under  high  pressure  every  ten  days  to  two  weeks  with  5-5-50 
Bordeaux  mixture  is  necessary  to  insure  complete  protection  from 
the  disease.  It  is  a  mistake  not  to  spray  before  rains  because  rain  is 
usually  responsible  for  the  infection  and  spread  of  the  causal  organism. 
Spraying  with  not  less  than  150  pounds  pressure  will  insure  efficient 
control.  Tubers  are  rotted  from  late  blight  as  a  result  of  the  spores 
being  washed  down  through  the  soil  during  rainy  periods  late  in  the 
growing  season.  Ridging  is  therefore  one  means  of  protecting  tubers 
from  the  blight  rot. 

Rhizoctoniose  {Coriicium  vagum). — This  disease  is  present  on  the  skin 
of  the  tuber  and  is  very  general  in  occurrence,  but  because  of  its  resem- 


296  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

blance  to  dried  muck  or  dirt,  it  is  commonly  overlooked.  Although  it 
does  not  affect  the  culinarj--  quality,  it  is  often  very  serious  on  seed  because 
when  planted  with  the  seed  piece,  the  fungus  may  so  girdle  the  new  sprout 
as  to  prevent  its  reaching  the  surface  of  the  ground.  Late  or  weak  hills, 
as  seen  early  in  the  summer,  are  commonly  due  to  this  fungus.  Soaking 
the  seed  before  cutting,  for  1)^  hours  in  corrosive  sublimate  at  a  strength 
of  4  ounces  to  30  gallons  of  water  will  kill  the  fungus  on  the  tuber.  Crop 
rotation  is  also  recommended. 

Common  Scab  (Actinomyces  chromogenus) . — Although  as  widespread 
as  any  other  disease,  it  affects  mainly  the  marketability  of  the  crop. 
The  irregular  shaped,  russet  lesions  in  the  surface,  result  in  waste  and  may 
in  severe  cases  make  the  tubers  almost  worthless.  This  disease  is  similar 
to  Rhizoctoniose  in  respect  to  its  method  of  hibernation  and  control. 
Unlike  the  latter,  however,  the  causal  organism  is  favored  by  alkaline  soil 
conditions.  The  use  of  hme,  stable  manure  or  wood  ashes  on  soil  soon 
to  be  used  for  potato  growing  should  be  avoided. 

Wilt  {Fusarium  sp.) — The  name  Wilt  is  given  to  this  disease  because 
it  causes  a  rapid  wilting  or  collapse  of  the  plant  usually  late  in  the  grow- 
ing season.  The  fungus  enters  the  roots  or  stolons  and  becomes  localized 
in  the  vascular  tissues  thereby  killing  this  tissue  and  eventually  stopping 
further  sap  flow.  The  base  of  the  plant  dies  first  with  a  progressive 
wilting  toward  the  top.  A  cross-section  of  either  tuber  or  base  of  the 
stem  will  usually  show  the  disease  in  the  form  of  dead  tissue  in  the  vascular 
area.  Apparently  infection  may  come  either  from  the  soil  or  from 
affected  seed.  In  cutting  seed,  all  tubers  showing  discoloration  at  the 
stem  end  should  be  discarded. 

Black-leg  (Bacillus  phytophthoriis). — This  disease  derives  its  connnon 
name  from  the  fact  that  the  causal  bacteria  produce  a  soft  black 
decay  on  the  base  of  the  stem  and  at  the  stem  end  of  the  tuber. 
The  disease  is  favored  by  cool  weather  and  is  seldom  found  outside  of 
Maine  and  other  New  England  states.  It  does  not  appear  likely  to  become 
serious  in  the  potato  states  farther  south.  Like  many  other  bacterial 
diseases,  it  spreads  by  insects  and  contact  in  circular  areas  outward  from 
the  initial  point  of  infection  in  the  field.  Affected  plants  first  show  a 
yellowing  in  the  upper  leaves  and  later  a  complete  kiUing  of  the  plant. 
Seed  treatment  as  for  common  scab,  the  use  of  clean  seed  from  uninfected 
fields  and  the  early  elimination  of  affected  plants  in  the  field  are  the  prin- 
cipal control  measures. 

Mosaic  and  Curly  Dwarf. — These  arc  probably  different  phases 
of  a  single  disease,  the  latter  being  no  more  than  an  advanced  stage  of 
pronounced  mosaic.  A  blotching  or  mottling  of  the  normally  dark  green 
leaf  with  light  green  areas  often  accompanied  by  more  or  less  crinkling 
or  cupping  of  the  leaf  suiface  are  typical  symptoms.  This  and  the  leaf- 
roll  disease  are  usually  classed  as  virus  or  non-parasitic  since  no  definite 


THE  POTATO  CROPS  297 

causal  organism  has  yet  been  isolated.  Mosaic  is  carried  over  to  suc- 
ceeding generations  in  the  seed  tuber  although  the  latter  shows  no  evi- 
dence of  abnormality  at  any  time.  By  virtue  of  the  abnormal  chlorophyll 
development  in  the  leaves  and  the  reduced  leaf  area  in  a  mosaic  plant, 
the  yield  is  reduced  approximately  one-third  on  the  average.  Although 
all  standard  varieties  are  susceptible  to  the  disease,  it  is  most  common 
in  the  Triumph  and  the  Green  Mountain  groups  of  varieties  and  very 
seldom  found  in  the  Rural.  Transmission  is  mainly  by  the  potato 
aphis,  Macrosiphum  solanifolii,  which  insect  injects  the  juice  of  infected 
plants  into  healthy  plants.  Control  consists  in  the  use  of  seed  from  clean 
fields,  in  the  control  of  the  aphis  and  in  the  use  of  an  isolated  seed  plot 
to  prevent  contamination  of  seed  stock  by  insects  which  may  migrate 
from  diseased  fields. 

Leaf-roll. — This  is  a  non-parasitic  disease  so-called  because  its 
principal  symptom  consists  in  the  upward  rolling  of  the  lower  leaves  of 
the  plant.  The  plant  is  usually,  though  not  always,  smaller  than  normal, 
of  a  paler  color,  and  of  an  abnormally  upright  or  clumpj^  habit  of  growth. 
The  leaves  are  not  only  rolled  but  also  unusually  thick  and  leathery  due 
to  the  accumulation  of  starch  which  in  a  normal  plant  is  translocated 
down  through  the  stolons  for  tuber  production.  A  similar  rolling  of 
the  upper  leaves  only,  on  the  plant  is  not  a  true  criterion  of  the  disease. 
Leaf-roll  is  even  more  serious  than  mosaic  in  that  it  reduces  the  yield 
on  an  average  by  two-thirds.  Its  mode  of  transmission,  method 
of  hibernation  and  control  are  apparently  identical  with  those  of 
mosaic.  All  standard  varieties,  however,  seem  to  be  equally  susceptible 
to  the  disease. 

Insects. — There  are  six  insects  which  may  be  considered  important 
in  respect  to  the  extent  to  which  they  affect  the  potato  crop.  Some  of 
these  affect  the  foliage  only,  some  the  tubers  only  and  some  both.  Only 
these  six  are  discussed  here. 

Colorado  Potato-beetle  (Leptinotarsa  decenilineata) . — This  insect 
is  found  throughout  this  country  and  Canada  and  is  probably  most 
serious  of  all  potato  insects.  The  adult  beetle  is  oval  in  outline,  about 
three-eights  of  an  inch  long  and  has  ten  black  stripes  running  lengthwise 
over  its  yellow,  hard  wing-covers.  Being  first  found  in  the  Rocky 
Mountain  section  of  Eastern  Colorado  about  1856,  it  rapidly  travelled 
eastward  reaching  the  Atlantic  Coast  about  1874  and  Nova  Scotia, 
Canada  about  1882.  It  is  a  leaf-eating  insect,  most  of  the  damage 
being  done  by  the  larvae  which  hatch  from  clusters  of  orange-colored 
eggs  deposited  on  the  underside  of  the  leaves.  The  tubers  are  not 
affected  except  indirectly  through  a  reduction  in  yield  because  of  a  reduc- 
tion in  foliage.  The  minimum  life  cycle  is  about  4  weeks'  more  than  one 
generation  a  season  being  possible.  The  insect  over-winters  as  the  adult 
beetle  in  the  soil.     Control  consists  in  the  application  to  the  foliage  of 


298  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

arsenical  sprays,  the  more  commonly  used  of  these  being  Paris  green, 
arsenate  of  lead  and  arsenite  of  soda.  Spraying  is  most  efficient  if 
applied  immediately  after  the  larvae  hatch.  Paris  green  and  arsenite 
of  soda  will,  unless  properly  diluted  with  water  or  Bordeaux  mixture, 
or  neutralized  with  lime,  cause  injury  to  the  leaves  by  burning.  This 
is  not  true  of  arsenate  of  lead.  The  latter  is  also  less  subject  to  washing  off 
of  the  fohage  than  the  other  arsenicals.  Paris  green  is  usually  applied 
1  pound  to  50  gallons,  while  arsenate  of  lead  is  applied  4  pounds  to  50 
gallons  of  water. 

Common  Flea-beetle  (Epitrix  cucumeris). — The  fiea-beetlc  is  prob- 
ably next  in  importance  to  the  Colorado  potato-beetle,  and  is  also  of  very 
general  occurrence.  The  adult  is  a  jet-black,  shiny,  hard-shelled  beetle 
about  one-twentieth  of  an  inch  long  which  eats  tiny,  round  holes  through 
the  leaves.  In  severe  cases,  the  leaves  are  reduced  to  a  sieve-like  struc- 
ture and  the  yield  of  tubers  thereby  much  decreased.  The  larvae  occa- 
sionally damage  the  tubers  by  mining  into  them  sufficiently  to  cause 
what  are  called  pimplj'  potatoes.  The  flea-beetle  over-winters  in  trash  or 
leaves  as  an  adult,  emerges  in  May  or  June,  and  lays  its  eggs  near  the 
roots  of  the  plant.  There  is  usually  but  one  brood  in  a  season.  Control 
consists  in  thorough  spraying  with  Bordeaux  mixture  which  acts  as  a 
repellent. 

Leaf-hopper  {Empoasca  mali). — This  is  a  leaf-sucking  insect  which 
works  mainly  on  the  under  surface  of  the  leaves.  It  is  a  small,  elongated, 
pale-green  insect  about  3^^  inch  long  which  hops  or  flies  actively  from 
plant  to  plant.  In  dry  seasons,  it  may  so  suck  the  plant  of  its  juices  as  to 
cause  much  dead  tissue  at  the  margins  and  tips  of  the  leaves.  This 
form  of  injury  is  commonly  recognized  as  tip-burn  or  hopper-burn.  It 
passes  the  winter  in  either  the  adult  or  the  egg  form.  The  nymphs  from 
the  winter  eggs,  appear  early  in  the  spring  and  begin  feeding  at  once. 
There  may  be  from  two  to  five  broods  in  a  season.  The  only  effective 
control  yet  devised  is  the  use  of  Bordeaux  mixture  as  a  repellent. 
Spraying  of  both  upper  and  lower  surfaces  of  the  leaves  is  absolutely 
essential.  The  addition  of  nicotine  sulfate  to  the  regular  Bordeaux 
formula  has  resulted  in  quicker  control,  but  the  added  cost  of  the 
nicotine  sulfate  may  not  be  justified  (Dudley  39). 

Potato  Aphis  (Macrosiphim  solanifolii) . — This  insect  has  become  a 
serious  potato  insect  in  certain  potato-growing  areas  in  recent  years. 
It  is  a  relatively  large  plant-louse  occurring  in  either  pink  or  green  body 
color  and  in  both  winged  and  wingless  forms.  As  a  sucking  insect  like 
the  leaf-hopper,  it  works  on  the  under  surface  of  the  leaves  and  on  the 
more  tender  stem  portions  of  the  plant.  As  the  injury  progresses,  the 
leaves  tend  to  curl  downward  and  both  stems  and  leaves  show  irregular, 
brownish  areas  from  which  the  juice  has  been  sucked.  In  dry  seasons 
large  circular  areas  in  fields  and  sometimes  whole  fields  maj^  be  prema- 


THE  POTATOjCROPS  299 

turely  killed  by  this  insect.  Patch  (114)  has  furnished  evidence  that 
the  rose  is  the  primary  host  plant  on  which  the  aphis  lays  its  over-winter- 
ing eggs  and  on  which  the  first  generation  from  these  eggs  in  the  spring 
feed.  Part  of  this  generation  is  wingless  and  part  winged,  the 
winged  individuals  fly  to  the  potato  fields  during  June  or  July,  after  which 
other  generations  develop  rapidly.  Serious  losses  result  in  potato 
yields  not  only  from  direct  injury  to  the  plant,  but  also  from  the  fact 
that  potato  mosaic  is  mainly  disseminated  from  diseased  to  healthy 
plants  by  this  insect.  The  aphis  is  difficult  of  control  first,  because  it 
works  mainly  on  the  underside  of  the  leaves  and  second,  because  its  pres- 
ence is  usually  not  detected  until  damage  has  resulted  and  it  has  become 
well  established.  Spraying  with  nicotine  sulfate  or  "black-leaf  40" 
as  a  contact  spray  and  the  elimination  of  wild  rose  bushes  in  the  locality 
are  recommended. 

White  Grub  (Lachnosterna  species). — The  white  grub  commonly 
called  June-bug  or  May-beetle,  annually  causes  considerable  loss  by  the 
larvae  so  eating  the  surface  of  the  tubers  as  to  decrease  their  market 
value.  In  severe  cases  only,  potato  plants  may  collapse  because  of  injury 
to  the  roots,  stolons  or  bases  of  the  stems.  The  insect  is  most  common  in 
fields  which  for  several  years  previous  have  been  in  sod.  The  larvae 
feed  mostly  on  grass  roots  and  when  these  are  not  nearby  they  attack  the 
potato  tubers.     The  life  cycle  is  2  to  3  years,  the  larva  usually  requiring 

2  years  to  become  full-grown.  Tuber  injury  is  done  mainly  by  the  larvae 
in  their  second  year.     Although  white  grubs  are  abundant  about  every 

3  years,  predictions  as  to  when  grub  years  will  occur  are  not  always  reliable. 
The  3^ears  1921  and  1924  are  so-called  grub  years,  much  damage  being 
reported  for  1921  in  Iowa,  Minnesota,  New  York,  Connecticut  and  New 
Jersey  (Ball  and  Walter,  8).  When  it  is  feasible  to  use  old  sod  land  for 
potatoes,  it  should  be  fall  plowed  in  order  that  the  grubs  and  the  beetles 
may  be  killed  by  winter  freezing.  Otherwise,  some  crop  other  than 
potatoes  should  follow  sod. 

Wire-worms. — The  adults  of  the  wire-worms  are  several  of  the 
common  click-beetles  and  are  probably  as  common  and  even  more  serious 
than  the  white  grub.  The  larvae,  so-called  wire-worms  because  of  their 
long,  hard,  cylindrical  bodies,  eat  their  way  often  entirely  through  the 
tuber  and  thus  renders  it  worthless  for  human  consumption.  The  life 
cycle  is  from  3  to  5  years,  the  larvae  requiring  somewhat  longer  to 
mature  than  the  white  grub.  It  varies  in  length  from  3^^  inch  to  1  inch 
depending  mostly  upon  its  age.  Its  habitat  and  methods  of  control  are 
identical  with  those  given  for  white  grubs. 

Harvesting. — Except  in  the  northernmost  sections  of  the  northern 
potato  states,  the  main  crop  is  not  dug  until  the  tubers  are  mature.  Due 
to  the  short  growing  season  in  Aroostook  County,  Maine  and  in  some 
other  northern  sections,  the  foliage  is  usually  killed  by  frost  before 


300 


VEGETABLE  CROPS 


maturity.  The  immature  tubers  from  these  sections  as  well  as  tubers 
from  the  early  crop  in  some  other  states  can  be  recognized  in  the  market 
by  their  peeled,  chafed  and  curled  skins.  Although  this  immaturity  is 
considered  desirable  in  seed  potatoes,  it  is  less  desirable  from  the  stand- 
point of  eating  quality.  Since  yield  increases  rapidly  during  the  last 
stages  of  maturing,  the  crop  should  ordinarily  not  be  dug  until  the  foliage 
is  entirely  mature.  The  only  exception  to  this  rule  is  in  the  event  that  early 
market  prices  are  so  attractive  as  to  make  a  certain  amount  of  sacrifice 
in  yield  feasible.  The  rate  of  increase  in  yield  at  various  periods  up  to 
complete  maturity  is  well  illustrated  in  the  results  obtained  by  Kohler 
(85)  as  shown  in  Table  XLII. 


Table  XLII. — Results  from  Digging  Early  Ohio  Potatoes  at  Intervals  during 
THE  Period  of  Development  at  the  Minnesota  Station  (1909) 


Date  of  digging 


Gain  in  bu. 
of  market- 
able per  day 


Yield  in  bu.  per  acre 


Marketable 


Total 


Per  cent  of 
foliage  dead 


July  31... 

August  7. , 
August  14 
August  23 
August  30 


7.5 

7.6 

7.2 
6.4 


10.9 

62.3 

115.4 

182.1 

226.8 


38.7 

87.7 

141.5 

203.2 

253.8 


Weather  plays  an  important  part  in  determining  time  of  harvest 
because  it  is  desirable  from  the  standpoint  of  disease  and  keeping  quality 
that  the  tubers  go  into  storage  in  a  clean,  dry  condition.  Digging  the 
crop  before  maturity  in  order  to  avoid  tuber  rot  when  the  late  blight  has 
appeared  is  a  serious  mistake.  Tubers  so  dug,  are  brought  in  contact 
with  the  active  blight  organism  on  the  foliage  and  will  almost  surely  rot 
worse  in  storage  than  if  they  had  remained  in  the  soil  until  all  green  foliage 
was  dead.  Potato  tubers  keep  better  and  bruise  and  peel  less  if  allowed 
to  remain  on  the  ground  after  digging  for  an  hour  or  two  until  the  skin 
"sets." 

Although  much  of  the  crop  is  still  dug  by  hand,  chain-elevator  diggers 
are  becoming  common  wherever  topography  is  not  too  rolling  and  stones 
not  too  numerous  to  prevent  the  use  of  the  machine.  Such  machines 
permit  of  harvesting  from  three  to  five  times  more  acreage  in  a  day  than  is 
possible  with  hand  digging.  With  either  hand  or  machine  digging,  a 
certain  amount  of  bruising  seems  unavoidable. 

Potatoes  are  most  commonly  picked  up  by  hand  into  slatted  crates  of 
one  bushel  capacity,  these  being  hauled  to  storage' and  stored  in  this  way 
or  else  dumped  into  piles.     In  some  sections,  hamper  baskets  are  used 


THE  POTATO  CROPS  301 

instead  of  crates,  the  former  being  used  for  trucking  to  market  or  for 
dumping  direct  into  barrels  or  wagon  boxes. 

Grading. — Since  it  is  much  easier  to  judge  appearance  than  eating 
quahty  in  market  potatoes,  appearance  is  the  more  influential  factor 
in  price  determination.  The  advantage  of  some  system  of  uniform  grading 
both  as  to  size  of  tuber  and  skin  character  is  therefore  obvious.  Although 
relatively  little  grading  is  yet  done,  it  is  annually  becoming  more  common. 
Growers  are  slowly  beginning  to  realize  that  it  does  not  pay  to  ship  and 
pay  freight  on  ungraded  stock  containing  dirty  and  undersized  and  mis- 
shapen tubers.  Such  stock  is  eventually  graded  before  it  reaches  the 
consumer  and,  as  a  result,  the  handling  costs  deducted  by  the  middlemen 
are  greater,  the  growers'  receipts  less  and  the  consumers'  cost  more.  In 
addition  the  cull  stock  removed  in  the  grading  process  is  wasted,  whereas 
it  would  have  some  value  as  stock  feed  if  left  on  the  farm. 

Standard  grades  for  potatoes  were  recommended  by  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture  and  the  United  States  Food  Administration  in 
1917.  These  grades  were  made  mandatory  by  the  Food  Administration 
from  January  to  December  in  1918.  These  grades  have  become  suf- 
ficiently popular  that  many  growers  are  voluntarily  using  them  and  many 
states  have  established  them  as  their  official  standards.  These  grades 
as  revised  since  1918  are  as  follows: 

U.  S.  No.  1  shall  consist  of  potatoes  of  similar  varietal  characteristics  which 
are  not  badly  misshapen,  which  are  free  from  freezing  injury  and  soft  rot,  and 
from  damage  caused  by  dirt  or  other  foreign  matter,  sunburn,  second  growth, 
growth  cracks,  hollow-heart,  cuts,  scab,  blight,  dry  rot,  disease,  insects,  or 
mechanical  or  other  means. 

The  diameter  of  potatoes  of  round  varieties  shall  be  not  less  than  1  ^^g  inches 
and  of  potatoes  of  long  varieties  1%  inches. 

In  order  to  allow  for  variations  incident  to  proper  grading  and  handling, 
not  more  than  5  per  cent,  by  weight,  of  any  lot  may  be  below  the  prescribed  size, 
and,  in  addition,  not  more  than  6  per  cent,  by  weight,  may  be  below  the  remaining 
requirements  of  this  grade,  but  not  to  exceed  one-third  of  this  6"  per  cent  tolerance 
shall  be  allowed  for  potatoes  affected  by  soft  rot. 

U.  S.  No.  1  Small  shall  consist  of  potatoes  ranging  in  size  from  \].^  to  1% 
inches  in  diameter  but  meeting  all  the  other  requirements  of  U.  S.  No.  1. 

In  order  to  allow  for  variations  incident  to  proper  grading  and  handling 
not  more  than  25  per  cent,  by  weight,  of  any  lot  may  vary  from  the  prescribed 
size,  but  not  to  exceed  one-fifth  of  this  tolerance  shall  be  allowed  for  potatoes 
under  1>^  inches  in  diameter.  In  addition  not  more  than  6  per  cent,  by  weight, 
may  be  below  the  remaining  requirements  of  this  grade,  but  not  to  exceed  one- 
third  of  this  6  per  cent  tolerance  shall  be  allowed  for  potatoes  affected  by  soft  rot. 

U.  S.  No.  2  shall  consist  of  potatoes  of  similar  varietal  characteristics  which 
are  free  from  freezing  injury  and  soft  rot  and  from  serious  damage  caused  by 
sunburn,  cuts,  scab,  blight,  dry  rot,  disease,  insects,  or  mechanical  or  other 
means. 


302  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

The  diameter  of  potatoes  of  this  grade  shall  be  not  less  than  1^  inches. 

In  order  to  allow  for  variations  incident  to  proper  grading  and  handling, 
not  more  than  5  per  cent,  by  weight,  of  any  lot  may  be  below  the  prescribed 
size,  and,  in  addition  not  more  than  6  per  cent  by  weight,  may  be  below  the 
remaining  requirements  of  this  grade,  but  not  to  exceed  one-third  of  this  6  per 
cent  tolerance  shall  be  allowed  for  potatoes  affected  by  soft  rot. 

U.  S.  Fancy  No.  1  shall  consist  of  potatoes  of  one  variety  which  are  mature, 
bright,  well  shaped,  free  from  freezing  injury,  soft  rot,  dirt  or  other  foreign 
matter,  sunburn,  second  growth,  growth  cracks,  hollow-heart,  cuts,  scab,  blight, 
dry  rot,  disease,  insect  or  mechanical  injurj'',  and  other  defects.  The  range  in 
size  shall  be  stated  in  terms  of  minimum  and  maximum  diameters  or  weight 
following  the  grade  name,  but  in  no  case  shall  the  diameter  be  less  than 
2  inches. 

In  order  to  allow  for  variations  incident  to  proper  grading  and  handling, 
not  more  than  5  per  cent,  by  weight,  of  any  lot  may  vary  from  the  range  and 
size  stated  and,  in  addition,  not  more  than  6  per  cent,  by  weight,  of  any  lot  may 
be  below  the  remaining  requirements  of  this  grade,  but  not  to  exceed  one-third 
of  this  6  per  cent  tolerance  shall  be  allowed  for  potatoes  affected  by  soft  rot. 

Storing. — Some  of  the  influences  of  temperature,  humidity  and 
aeration  on  stored  seed  potatoes  have  been  discussed  in  a  previous 
paragraph.  Statistics  show  that  about  one-half  of  the  potato  crop  of  the 
United  States  is  annually  in  storage  on  January  first.  Approximately 
one-fourth  of  this  amount  is  held  by  dealers,  the  remainder  by  the 
producer.  All  this  indicates  the  importance  of  storage  faciHties.  The 
average  house  cellar  is  too  warm  and  too  poorly  ventilated  for  ideal 
storage.  As  a  result,  the  respiration  rate  from  stored  tubers  is  increased, 
the  rest  period  is  prematurely  broken  and  the  stored  crop  is  removed  in 
the  spring  in  a  badly  sprouted  and  shrunken  condition.  Clark  (25), 
storing  potatoes  under  controlled  temperatures  approximating  34  to 
40  degrees  F.  from  November  to  March  during  1915,  1916  and  1918, 
recorded  an  average  total  shrinkage  ranging  from  7.0  to  7.8  per  cent. 
About  one-half  or  3.6  per  cent  of  this  loss  was  due  to  dirt  removed  during 
the  handling  and  grading  processes.  When  the  crop  is  stored  in  large 
piles  on  the  cellar  bottom  inslfcad  of  in  slatted  bins  or  in  crates,  the  tem- 
perature may  rise  so  high  and  the  aeration  may  be  so  poor  as  to  cause 
physiological  injury  to  the  tubers  at  the  bottom  and  center  of  the  pile. 
This  form  of  injury  has  been  termed  "black-heart"  by  Stewart  and  Mix 
(143)  who,  in  a  series  of  cylinder^experiments,  determined  that  it  is  unsafe 
to  pile  potatoes  deeper  than  three  feet  at  temperatures  above  50  degrees 
F.  and  that  6  feet  should  be  the  maximum  depth  when  the  temperature  is 
to  be  maintained  below  45  degrees  F.  for  several  months. 

Such  storage  factors  as  cost  of  labor,  insurance  on  buildings, 
shrinkage,  taxes  and  interest  on  investment  in  the  stored  crop  must 
always  be  taken  into  account.     Whether  to  store  or  market  the  crop  at 


THE  POTATO  CROPS  303 

harvest  time  should  be  determined  by  an  estimate  of  whether  or  not  prices 
are  hkely  to  increase  or  decKne  from  fall  until  spring.  Prices  have  usually 
increased  toward  spring  in  years  of  sub-normal  production  and  decreased 
in  years  of  over-production  of  the  crop  in  the  United  States. 

Marketing. — This  may  be  both  local  and  inter-state.  Early  potatoes 
from  Florida  begin  to  go  into  northern  markets  in  April,  Carolina  potatoes 
in  May,  Virginia  potatoes  in  June  and  New  Jersey  and  Long 
Island  potatoes  in  July  and  August.  The  late  or  main  crop  varieties  are 
found  in  the  leading  markets  from  September  to  April. 

Various  marketing  facilities  are  in  use,  the  agencj^  depending  upon 
such  factors  as  distance  to  cities,  highway  and  railroad  facilities,  and  the 
development  of  local  or  state  cooperative  selling  organizations.  Most 
of  the  crop  is  still  sold  by  the  producer  to  local  track-side  dealers  who 
accept  and  store  the  crop  in  limited  quantities  in  warehouses  as  the  roads 
and  markets  warrant.  From  the  local  dealers,  the  crop  often  goes  to 
commission  merchants,  then  to  brokers,  then  to  wholesalers  and  finally 
to  the  retailers.  The  number  of  marketing  steps  between  the  producer 
and  the  consumer  is  the  principal  factor  influencing  cost  of  marketing. 
Many  local,  county  and  state  producers'  cooperative  selling  organizations 
have  come  into  existence  during  the  last  few  years. 

Although  more  potatoes  are  still  shipped  in  bulk  than  any  other  way, 
bag  containers  are  becoming  more  popular.  Bag  shipments  result  in  less 
damage  and  shrinkage  in  marketing  and  as  a  result  return  the  grower  a 
larger  per  cent  of  profit.  Burlap  bags  of  100  to  120  pounds  capacity 
are  commonly  used  west  of  the  Mississippi  River  while  the  150-  and  the 
165-pound  sizes  are  more  common  in  the  East.  Maine,  Virginia  and 
Florida  potatoes  have  been  shipped  principally  in  barrels  of  11-  and  12- 
pecks  capacity.  Growers  in  these  states  are  now  using  bags  more  com- 
monly than  heretofore.  Barrel  and  hamper  containers  are  objectionable 
because  of  expense  and  breakage.  The  average  carload  of  potatoes 
contains  600  to  700  bushels. 

Improvement. — As  long  as  most  potatoes  in  this  country  are  grown 
and  stored  under  temperatures  too  warm  to  be  ideal  and  as  long  as  such 
non-parasitic  diseases  as  leaf-roll  and  mosaic  are  prevalent,  seed  stock 
will  tend  to  degenerate.  Consequently,  a  certain  amount  of  continuous 
effort  for  improvement  is  necessary.  Since  the  potato  is  propagated 
asexually  by  tuber  cuttings  improvement  is  accomplished  mainly  by 
what  may  be  termed  clonal  selection.  Clonal  selection  is,  in  turn,  based 
upon  the  fact  of  variation  between  strains  within  the  variety,  between 
hills  within  the  strain  and  between  tubers  within  the  hill.  Thus  the 
principal  methods  of  improvement  by  seed  selection  have  been  termed 
(1)  mass  selection,  (2)  mass-hill  selection,  (3)  pedigree-hill  selection  and 
(4)  tuber-unit  selection.  All  these  aim  to  accomplish  improvement  by 
increasing  yield  and  by  decreasing  or  eliminating  disease.     Of  the  above 


304  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

methods,  the  first  is  the  least  thorough  and  the  slowest  of  results,  the 
last  the  most  thorough  and  the  most  expeditious. 

In  mass  selection,  tubers  of  ideal  appearance  are  selected  from  the  bin 
or  mass  for  planting  without  regard  to  the  yielding  ability  or  health 
of  the  parent  plant.  Although  this  is  a  common  practice,  only 
a  slight  improvement  may  be  expected  from  it.  It  is  not  possible 
to  detect  non-parasitic  diseases  nor  yielding  ability  by  the  appearance 
of  tubers. 

Both  mass-hill  and  pedigree-hill  selection  consist  first  of  all  in  the  selec- 
tion during  the  growing  season  of  healthy,  high-yielding  hills.  This 
provides  for  the  avoidance  of  non-parasitic  diseases  evident  in  the  foliage 
and  the  choice  at  harvest  time  of  the  highest  yielding  hills.  Hills  so 
selected  are  used  in  planting  a  seed  plat  the  following  year.  In  mass- 
hill  selection,  all  selected  hills  are  thrown  together  and  planted  with- 
out regard  to  the  future  performance  of  each  individual  hill.  Planting 
selected  hills,  each  in  a  row  by  itself  for  further  study  and  record, 
as  in  -pedigree-hill  selection,  provides  for  the  later  elimination  of  such 
hill  progenies  as  do  not  maintain  the  high  yielding  ability  of  the 
parent  hill. 

Inasmuch  as  tubers  within  the  hill  vary  just  as  hills  within  the  strain,  so 
selection  of  individual  tubers  for  test,  as  in  tuber-unit  selection,  provides  for 
the  saving  of  seed  from  the  progeny  of  only  such  units  as  maintain  desir- 
able characters.  A  so-called  tuber  unit  usually  consists  of  the  four  hills 
planted  from  the  seed  cut  from  a  single  selected  tuber.  None  of  these 
methods  require  the  annual  selection  of  hills  from  the  main  field.  After 
the  original  selections  are  made,  all  further  efforts  are  confined  to  the 
seed  plat. 

In  recent  years,  growers'  organizations  for  the  inspection  and  certi- 
fication of  seed  potatoes  have  developed.  Certified  seed  is  seed  which  is 
certified  to  be  practically  free  from  disease,  and  varietal  mixture,  to  be 
reasonably  true  to  type  and  to  be  high  yielding  as  based  upon  a  certain 
number  of  field  and  bin  inspections.  Such  seed  has  supposedly  met  a 
published  standard  of  excellence.  Copy  of  the  exact  record  of  condition 
in  field  and  bin  is  usually  made  available  to  the  trade.  Seed  inspection 
and  certification  aim  primarily  to  accommodate  the  demand  for  seed  of 
known  qualities  under  limited  guarantee. 

SWEET  POTATO 

The  sweet  potato  is  a  very  important  crop  in  tropical  and  subtropical 
countries,  as  in  Africa,  India,  China,  Japan,  the  Malyan  Archipelago, 
the  Pacific  Islands,  tropical  America  and  southern  United  States.  In 
fact  in  the  South  it  is  of  more  importance  and  partially  takes  the  place 
of  the  Irish  potato  in  the  diet.     The  sweet  potato  is  often  called  "  potato" 


THE  POTATO  CROPS 


305 


in  the  South  and  the  potato  is  called  "Irish  potato"  or  "white  potato." 
It  is  a  standard  food  article  in  the  South,  being  served  baked,  fried, 
candied  and  used  as  filling  for  pies. 

Some  varieties  of  sweet  potatoes,  especially  those  having  a  moist, 
soft  texture  when  cooked,  are  often  called  "yams"  to  distinguish  them 
from  the  dry-fleshed  varieties.  It  is  unfortunate  that  the  term  "Yam" 
has  been  used  in  connection  with  the  sweet  potato  since  the  true  yam  is 
an  entirely  different  plant,  belonging  to  the  genus  Dioscorea.  Those  two 
plants  are  not  even  closely  related. 

Statistics  of  Production. — The  sweet  potato  ranks  next  to  the  Irish 
potato  in  importance  as  a  commercial  truck  crop.  In  1919  the  area  of 
sweet  potatoes  harvested  was  803,727  acres,  and  the  production  was 
78,091,913  bushels  valued  at  $124,844,475.  The  average  yield  per  acre 
for  the  entire  country  was  97.2  bushels  and  the  average  value  per  acre 
was  $155.  Nearly  22  per  cent  of  the  farms  in  the  United  States  reported 
sweet  potatoes.  In  the  South  Atlantic  states  46.9  per  cent  of  the  farms 
reported  sweet  potatoes  and  in  the  East  South  Central  division  41.2  per 
cent.     Eight  states,   Georgia,   Alabama,   North  Carohna,   Mississippi, 


Table  XLIIL- 


-AcREAGE,  Production  and  Value  op  Sweet  Potatoes  in 
Important  Producing  States,  1919 


State 


Acres 


Production, 
bu. 


Value 


Average 

Yield 
per  acre 


Average 

value 
per  acre 


Georgia 

Alabama 

North  Carolina 

Mississippi 

Virginia 

Texas 

South  Carolina 

Louisiana 

Tennessee 

Arkansas 

Florida 

Oklahoma 

New  Jersey .  .  .  , 

Delaware 

Maryland 

Kentucky 

Missouri 

California 

Illinois 

United  States .  . 


110,033 

90,868 

74,678 

69,394 

42,889 

68,142 

60,325 

68,033 

39,645 

39,019 

26,436 

16,735 

15,427 

9,813 

10,185 

14,892 

11,165 

7,632 

8,003 

803,727 


10,132,016 

8,095,404 

7,959,786 

6,550,500 

5,981,348 

5,838,879 

5,369,611 

5,324,419 

4,452,883 

3,959,870 

2,460,872 

1,844,463 

1,772,829 

1,505,278 

1,453,880 

1,222,651 

997,606 

867,300 

668,845 

78,091,913 


13,171,629 

92.1 

11,333,568 

89.1 

11,939,707 

106.6 

9,170,687 

94.4 

9,570,164 

139.5 

10,509,980 

85.7 

8,591,379 

89.0 

8,785,292 

78.3 

7,347,259 

112.3 

6,533,789 

101.5 

3,445,221 

93.1 

3,504,490 

110.2 

3,634,301 

114.9 

2,634,237 

153.4 

2,762,373 

142.7 

2,750,979 

82.1 

2,094,979 

89.4 

1,994,790 

113.6 

1,337,690 

83.6 

124,844,475 

97.2 

$120 
125 
160 
132 
223 
154 
142 
129 
185 
167 
130 
209 
236 
268 
271 
185 
188 
261 
167 
155 


306  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

Virginia,  Texas,  South  Carolina  and  Louisiana  produced  70.8  of  the  entire 
crop  in  1919.  Over  90  per  cent  of  the  crop  was  produced  in  the  fifteen 
states  comprising  the  South  Atlantic,  East  South  Central  and  West  South 
Central  groups  of  states.  The  acreage,  production,  value,  average  yield 
per  acre  and  average  value  per  acre  of  sweet  potatoes  in  these  fifteen  states 
and  in  New  Jersey,  Missouri,  California  and  Illinois  are  given  in  Table 
XLIII. 

In  addition  to  the  states  listed  the  sweet  potato  is  grown  commercially 
to  a  limited  extent  in  West  Virginia,  Pennsylvania,  southern  Ohio, 
southern  Indiana,  in  Iowa  especially  in  the  vicinity  of  Muscatine,  in 
Kansas  mainly  in  the  Kaw  River  Valley,  in  New  Mexico  and  Arizona. 
It  is  grown  for  home  use  in  all  of  the  states  mentioned  and  in  several 
others. 

History  and  Taxonomy. — The  sweet  potato  is  probably  a  native  of 
tropical  America  and  was  carried  to  the  islands  of  the  Pacific  very  early. 
It  was  apparently  known  in  China  early  in  the  Christian  Era.  It  was  prob- 
ably cultivated  by  the  natives  on  the  American  continent  hundreds,  or 
perhaps  thousands  of  years  before  the  discovery  of  America  by  Columbus. 
Many  varieties  were  in  existence  at  the  time  America  was  discovered. 
It  was  mentioned  by  Oviedo  (1526)  as  being  grown  in  the  West  Indies 
and  was  carried  by  him  to  Spain.  It  was  known  in  Virginia  in  1650  and 
possibly  earlier.  It  is  now  widely  distributed  and  important  throughout 
the  world  where  the  climatic  conditions  are  favorable. 

The  sweet  potato  {Ipomoea  batatas  Poir.)  belongs  to  the  Convol- 
vulaceae  or  morning-glory  family.  It  is  a  tuberous-rooted  perennial. 
The  stems  are  usually  prostrate  and  slender,  and  the  juice  of  both  vines 
and  roots  milky.  The  blossoms  resemble  those  of  the  common  morning- 
glory,  being  almost  white,  or  pale  violet  in  color. 

Climatic  Requirements. — The  sweet  potato  plant  is  tender,  and 
requires  a  long,  warm  growing  season  for  profitable  growth.  It  cannot  be 
grown  successfully  in  a  region  having  less  than  4  months'  frost-free  period, 
with  warm  weather  and  sunshine  for  a  greater  portion  of  this  period. 
Even  with  4  months'  growing  season  the  sweet  potato  does  not  produce  a 
satisfactory  yield  unless  the  nights,  as  well  as  the  days,  are  warm  for  a 
considerable  portion  of  the  time. 

The  sweet  potato  is  one  of  the  most  drought-resistant  vegetables. 
In  fact  it  will  produce  a  fair  crop  without  irrigation  in  semi-arid  regions, 
where  most  vegetable  crops  will  not  thrive  at  all.  A  moderate  rainfall 
during  the  growing  season  is,  however,  desirable.  In  regions  of  scant 
rainfall  irrigation  is  profitable,  when  the  water  is  applied  at  the  right  time. 
Most  of  the  water  should  be  applied  between  the  time  the  plants  are  sot 
and  the  time  when  they  practically  cover  the  ground.  Garcia  (51) 
reports  that  six  t  o  ten  irrigations  at  the  Experiment  Station  in  New 
Mexico  have  produced  good  yields.     He  states  further  that  if  the  sweet 


THE  POTATO  CROPS  307 

potatoes  are  kept  well  irrigated  and  the  surface  soil  moist  the  tubers  are 
nearer  the  surface  of  the  ground  than  if  the  surface  soil  is  allowed  to  dry 
out  too  much.  Light  irrigations  at  frequent  intervals  are  preferable  to 
heavy  irrigations  at  long  intervals. 

Soils. — A  well-drained,  sandy  loam  soil  with  a  clay  sub-soil  is  con- 
sidered ideal  for  sweet  potatoes,  although  the  crop  can  be  grown  on  a  wide 
range  of  soils  if  the  growing  season  is  sufficiently  long.  They  are  some- 
times grown  on  almost  pure  sand,  and  with  a  fair  amount  of  fertiKzer, 
good  yields  are  obtained.  On  very  rich  soils  the  crop  produces  too  much 
vine  growth  and  the  potatoes  are  hkely  to  be  too  large  and  rough,  which 
reduces  their  market  value.  On  heavy  clay  soils  the  tubers  are  also  likely 
to  be  rough  and  irregular  in  shape.  It  is  best,  therefore,  to  select  a 
light,  modei'ately  rich  soil.  The  crop  is  particularly  adapted  to  the  newly 
cleared  lands,  such  as  the  cut-over  pine  lands  of  the  South. 

Good  drainage  is  important  in  growing  sweet  potatoes  since  the  crop 
does  not  do  well  when  water  stands  around  the  plants.  Planting  on  ridges 
is  commonly  practiced  on  much  of  the  land  in  the  South,  mainly  for  the 
purpose  of  drainage. 

Preparation  of  the  Soil. — On  deep  soils  there  is  a  tendency  for  the 
roots  to  grow  long  and  slender,  therefore,  deep  plowing  is  hot  advocated. 
However,  a  depth  of  6  to  8  inches  is  none  too  deep  and  is  much  better  than 
3  to  4  inches,  which  is  the  common  depth  of  plowing  on  so  many  southern 
farms.  After  plowing  the  soil  should  be  thoroughly  prepared  as  for  other 
crops.  Because  the  sweet  potato  will  produce  a  fair  crop  with  poor  prepa- 
ration too  little  attention  is  given  to  preparing  the  land  for  this  crop. 

On  a  large  part  of  the  farms  growing  sweet  potatoes  the  plants  are 
set  on  ridges.  These  ridges  are  usually  thrown  up  with  a  small  plow, 
throwing  two  furrows  together.  The  ridges  should  be  as  low  and  flat  as 
the  drainage  conditions  will  allow  since  narrow,  sharp  ridges  dry  out 
more  readily  than  wide,  flat  ones. 

Starnes  (141)  reports  experiments  in  which  a  comparison  of  ridge  and 
level  culture  was  made.  In  1893  plants  grown  on  ridges  14  inches  high 
produced  at  the  rate  of  272.75  bushels  and  those  grown  on  the  level  237 
bushels  to  the  acre.  In  1894  the  results  were  practically  reversed. 
Under  level  culture  the  yield  was  270.3  bushels  and  under  ridge  culture 
237.2  bushels  to  the  acre.  Commenting  on  these  results  he  has  the 
following  to  say: 

Unquestionably,  results  under  this  head  depend  upon  the  season.  In  a 
wet  season,  or  in  one  with  even  a  full  sufficiency  of  moisture,  ridging  will  be  found 
to  pay,  even  taking  into  consideration  the  extra  cost  of  the  hoe  work  necessary. 
In  a  dry  season,  or  in  one  with  even  a  slight  insufficiency  of  rain,  level  culture 
wiU  be  found  preferable.     .    .    . 

Unfortun-ately  Starnes  does  not  state  the  character  of  the  soil  on  which 
the  experiment  was  conducted.     The  results  on  a  sandy,  or  sandy  loam 


308 


VEGETABLE  CROPS 


soil  would  undoubtedly  be  very  different  from  those  secured  on  a  clay 
soil.  On  the  former  level  culture  would  show  to  much  greater  advantage 
than  on  the  latter.  Experiments  at  the  Arkansas  Experiment  Station  on 
a  deep,  level,  well-drained,  rich  sandy  soil  gave  results  in  favor  of  ridges 
3  inches  high,  as  compared  with  level  culture  and  with  ridges  6  and  9 
inches  high. 

Manures  and  Fertilizers. — Commercial  fertilizers  are  commonly  used 
in  growing  sweet  potatoes  since  satisfactory  yields  are  produced  by  their 
use.  As  the  sweet  potato  gives  better  results  than  most  other  vegetable 
crops  on  soils  deficient  in  humus  manure  can  be  used  to  better  advantage 
on  other  crops.  Fresh  manure  causes  a  rank  growth  of  vines  and  the 
development  of  large,  rough  roots.  It  seems  best,  therefore,  to  apply 
manure  to  other  crops  and  to  depend  on  fertilizers  to  furnish  the  ele- 
ments that  are  needed  for  the  sweet  potato  crop.  Durst  (40)  reports 
results  of  4  years'  experiments  on  a  yellow  silt  loam  soil  in  southern 
Illinois,  which  are  favorable  to  manure.  Eight  plats  were  used  and 
were  given  the  following  treatments  per  acre: 

Plat  1.  Check  (no  fertilizer). 

Plat  2.  660  pounds  fertilizer,  consisting  of  2  parts  steamed  bone  (12  V^  per  cent 
PiOs),  2  parts  dried  blood  (14  per  cent  N)  and  1  part  K2SO4.     Applied  broadcast. 
Plat  3.   10.56  tons  manure  broadcast. 
Plat  4.  528  pounds  steamed  bone  broadcast. 
Plat  5.  Check. 

Plat  6.  Same  as  plat  2,  except  applied  under  ridge. 
Plat  7.   10.56  tons  manure  under  ridge. 
Plat  8.  528  pounds  steamed  bone  under  ridge. 

The  average  yield  of  table  and  seed  potatoes  per  acre  and  the  gross 
and  net  value  of  the  crop  under  the  various  treatments  are  given  in 
Table  XLIV. 


Table   XLIV. — Yields   and   Returns   from   Sweet   Potatoes   under    Various 
Fertilizer  Treatments 


(Adapted  from  111.  Bull.  188) 

Plat 

Yield  bu.  per  acre 

Gross  value 

Value  less  cost  of 
fertilizer 

1 

111.23 

$  83.43 

$  83.43 

2 

127.76 

95.62 

83.08 

3 

140.23 

105.18 

89.34 

4 

123.06 

92.31 

85.71 

5 

.       111.00 

83.25 

83.25 

6 

132.40 

99.31 

86.77 

7 

159.07 

119.31 

103.47 

8 

134.17 

100.63 

94.03 

THE  POTATO  CROPS  309 

Examination  of  the  table  shows  that  the  manure  applied  under  the 
ridge  produced  the  highest  yield  and  the  highest  net  return,  but  the  cost 
of  hauling  and  applying  the  manure  is  not  taken  into  consideration.  The 
price,  $1.50  per  ton,  is  too  low  for  manure,  especially  considering  the 
cost  of  hauling.  The  manure  supplied  nearly  three  times  as  much 
nitrogen  and  about  50  per  cent  more  potash  than  the  fertilizers  used  on 
plats  2  and  6.     The  phosphorus  was  nearly  equal  in  the  two  treatments. 

As  the  result  of  experiments  on  a  clay  soil  in  Georgia,  Starnes  (141) 
recommended  a  fertilizer  containing  320  pounds  acid  phosphate  (14  per 
cent),  360  pounds  cottonseed 'meal  and  640  pounds  kainit.  Muriate 
of  potash  at  the  rate  of  80  pounds  to  the  acre  in  combination  with  the 
acid  phosphate  and  cottonseed  meal  produced  practically  the  same  yields. 

Where  the  sweet  potato  is  grown  as  a  general  farm  crop  in  the  South 
cottonseed  meal  and  acid  phosphate  are  commonly  mixed  together  and 
applied  at  the  rate  of  500  to  600  pounds  to  the  acre.  Some  growers  mix 
them  in  equal  proportions,  while  others  use  1  part  of  the  former  to  2  or 
3  parts  of  the  latter.  On  sandy  soils  some  potash  would  probably 
increase  the  yield.  Sweet  potatoes  grown  as  a  truck  crop  are  usually 
more  heavily  fertilized  than  when  grown  as  a  general  farm  crop.  Appli- 
cations of  1,000  to  1,500  pounds  to  the  acre  of  a  2-8-6,  2-8-8  or  3-8-8  is 
not  uncommon  and  on  the  average  sandy  or  sand}--  loam  soil  the  lower 
amount  is  certainly  none  too  high.     As  much  as  a  ton  is  sometimes  used. 

In  some  sections  of  the  South  sweet  potatoes  follow  a  crop  of  early 
Irish  potatoes.  The  latter  are  usually  heavily  fertilized  with  a  high- 
grade  mixture  and  no  additional  fertilizer  is  applied  for  the  sweet  potatoes. 

Fertilizers  are  applied  broadcast  or  in  the  row.  Where  the  applica- 
tion is  500  to  750  pounds  to  the  acre  applying  in  the  row  is  probably 
preferable,  but  for  1 ,000  pounds  or  more  broadcasting  should  be  the  method 
followed.  Heavy  applications  in  the  row  may  cause  injury  by  burning 
the  plants.  Fertilizer  drills  may  be  used  for  either  broadcast  or  row 
applications.  When  the  row  method  is  used  the  material  is  applied  in  a 
furrow  and  the  ridge  is  made  over  it. 

Propagation. — Sweet  potatoes  are  grown  either  from  plants  or  slips 
produced  from  roots,  or  from  cuttings  of  the  vines.  In  the  northern 
sweet  potato  sections  a  large  part  of  the  crop  is  grown  from  slips  produced 
from  sprouting  seed  potatoes  in  a  hotbed.  In  the  regions  south  of  Vir- 
ginia the  early  crop  for  market  is  produced  from  slips,  but  a  large  part 
of  the  main  crop  is  grown  from  vine  cuttings.  In  this  case  enough 
roots  are  bedded,  in  an  open  bed,  to  produce  slips  for  about  one-eighth 
of  the  area  to  be  planted.  These  slips  are  planted  in  the  usual  manner, 
and  when  the  vines  begin  to  run  cuttings  are  taken  to  plant  the  remainder 
of  the  field. 

The  growing  season  in  the  northern  part  of  the  sweet- potato  region 
is  too  short  for  producing  a  commercial  crop  from  vine  cuttings,  but  this 


310  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

method  is  often  used  to  grow  seed  roots  for  the  following  year.  The  vino 
cuttings  have  the  advantage  of  being  free  from  some  of  the  serious  diseases 
which  are  carried  from  the  seed  bed  to  the  field  on  the  slips.  In  the 
South,  where  the  growing  season  is  long,  vine  cuttings  are  preferable  to 
slips  for  the  main  crop.  The  vine  cuttings  are  cheaper,  produce  roots 
more  nearly  uniform  in  size  and  shape  and  are  less  likely  to  carry  disease. 
Experiments  show  that  the  yield  from  vine  cuttings  is  as  large,  or  even 
larger  than  from  slips  planted  at  the  same  time.  In  an  experiment 
in  Georgia  (154)  the  yield  was  much  larger  from  vine  cuttings  then  from 
slips  set  July  28,  1913.  In  Arkansas  the  yields  from  slips  and  from  vine 
cuttings  were  practically  the  same.  In  experiments  conducted  for  two 
3^ears  the  3delds  from  slips  and  from  vine  cuttings  were  as  follows : 

Slips,  average  134.75  bushels  per  acre. 
Cuttings,  average  139.25  bushels  per  acre. 

The  percentage  of  marketable  potatoes  was  slightly  greater  from 
cuttings  than  from  slips. 

Growing  the  Plants. — When  slips  alone  are  used  6  to  8  bushels  of  seed 
roots  are  required  to  produce  enough  plants  from  the  first  pulling  to  set 
an  acre,  but  if  sufficient  time  is  available  to  make  two  or  three  pullings 
3  to  4  bushels  of  seed  ordinarih^  will  produce  slips  enough  for  an  acre. 
The  amount  of  seed  required  depends  upon  the  size  of  the  roots  and  the 
distance  between  the  plants  in  the  field.  Large  roots  produce  fewer 
plants  from  a  bushel  of  seed  than  small  or  medium  sized  roots.  One 
bushel  of  good  seed  roots  will  produce  2,500  to  3,000  plants  from  two  or 
three  pulhngs,  and  should  be  given  20  to  24  square  feet  of  bed  space. 
Before  bedding  the  seed  roots  should  be  disinfected  by  treating  for 
5  to  10  minutes  in  a  solution  made  by  dissolving  one  ounce  of  corrosive 
sublimate  in  8  gallons  of  water.  After  disinfection  the  potatoes  should 
be  rinsed  in  clean  water  and  placed  in  the  sun  to  dry.  This  treatment  will 
not  kill  the  fungus  within  the  potato,  but  will  destroy  any  spores  that  may 
be  on  the  surface.  The  solution  should  not  be  used  more  than  two  or  three 
times  since  it  loses  its  effectiveness  after  repeated  use. 

Open  beds  are  usually  made  in  a  protected  location,  such  as  on  the 
south  side  of  a  building  or  tight  fence.  The  drainage  should  be  away 
from  the  bed.  An  excavation  is  made  6  to  12  inches  deep,  5  to  6  feet 
wide  and  as  long  as  needed  for  the  quantity  of  potatoes  to  be  bedded. 
Manure  is  sometimes  used  to  furnish  a  little  heat  to  start  the  sprouts  and 
in  this  case  a  depth  of  12  inches  is  none  too  much.  If  manure  is  not  used 
a  depth  of  6  inches  is  sufficient.  About  4  inches  of  sand  or  loose  soil 
is  placed  over  the  manure  or  on  the  bottom  of  the  bed  and  leveled.  The 
potatoes  are  then  placed  by  hand  as  close  together  as  practicable  without 
allowing  them  to  touch.  They  are  then  covered  to  the  depth  of  an  inch 
or  two  with  sand  or  soil.     The  bed  is  watered  thoroughly  by  sprinkling 


THE  POTATO  CROPS  311 

with  a  hose  or  watering  can.  As  soon  as  the  plants  come  through  the 
surface  more  sand  or  soil  is  added,  in  order  to  develop  a  good  root  system. 
Straw,  hay,  leaves  or  other  litter  is  sometimes  placed  on  the  bed  to  prevent 
rapid  drying  of  the  surface  and  to  protect  it  from  cold.  This  covering 
should  be  removed  as  soon  as  the  plants  break  through  the  surface  of 
the  soil  to  avoid  soft,  tender  growth. 

Hotbeds  are  used  for  growing  sweet  potato  plants  in  the  North  and 
for  a  very  early  crop  in  sections  of  the  South.  All  methods  of  heating 
are  used  including  the  use  of  manure,  steam,  hot  water  and  hot  air.  The 
flue-heated  hotbeds  are  the  most  common,  especially  in  those  regions 
where  hotbeds  are  not  employed  for  growing  other  plants.  The  methods 
of  construction  and  management  of  hotbeds  are  discussed  in  Chapter  VII. 

The  temperature  of  the  soil  in  the  hotbed  should  be  80  or  85  degrees 
F,  at  the  time  the  seed  is  bedded  and  should  fall  gradually  until  it  reaches 
70  or  75  degrees  F.  A  high  temperature  favors  rapid,  soft  growth  and  a 
low  temperature  delays  sprouting  and  may  even  prevent  it  completely. 
At  the  proper  temperature  6  weeks  is  sufficient  time  to  grow  plants  large 
enough  for  setting  out. 

As  soon  as  the  potatoes  are  bedded  and  covered  with  soil  the  bed 
should  be  watered.  Later  waterings  should  be  given  as  needed.  More 
water  is  required  when  steam,  hot  water,  or  furnace  heat  is  used  than 
when  manure  is  used  to  supply  heat.  After  the  plants  are  up  and  the 
beds  are  left  uncovered  during  the  day  frequent  watering  is  necessary. 

Planting. — The  sweet  potato  plant  is  tender  and  will  not  withstand 
a  frost,  therefore,  planting  should  be  delaj^ed  until  the  danger  of  frost  is 
past.  In  regions  having  a  relatively  short  growing  period  it  is  advisable 
to  set  the  plants  as  early  as  weather  conditions  will  allow.  For  an  early 
crop  in  the  South  early  planting  is  also  desirable.  For  the  main  crop  in 
most  sections  of  the  South  planting  in  May  and  June  usually  gives  better 
results  than  earlier  planting.  Experiments  by  Stuckey  in  Georgia  (154) 
with  the  Pumpkin  Yam  variety  show  the  heaviest  yield  from  June  11 
planting  one  yesir,  May  16  the  next  year  and  May  20  2  years  later.  In 
some  regions  vine  cuttings  are  planted  in  July  and  even  as  late  as  the 
first  part  of  August  with  satisfactory  results.  Good  yields  need  not  be 
expected  with  less  than  4  months'  growing  season  after  setting  the  plants. 

With  hand  planting  it  is  desirable  to  set  the  plants  when  the  soil  is 
wet  so  as  to  avoid  the  extra  labor  and  expense  of  applying  water.  If  the 
soil  is  dry  when  the  plants  are  set  water  should  be  used  if  at  all  practicable. 
If  watering  is  not  practicable  the  plants  should  at  least  be  dipped  in  a 
thin  paste  made  with  mud  and  water  to  prevent  the  roots  dr^dng  out 
before  being  set  and  to  make  the  soil  adhere  to  them.  This  is  called 
"puddhng,"  and  is  usually  done  as  the  plants  are  pulled  from  the  bed. 
The  paste  should  not  be  allowed  to  dry  on  the  roots  as  this  would  prevent 
the  roots  from  coming  into  contact  with  the  soil  and  delay  growth. 


312  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

After  puddling  the  roots  the  plants  should  be  kept  covered  with  burlap, 
old  carpets,  blankets,  hay,  straw  or  material  which  is  kept  moist. 

The  spacing  of  sweet  potato  plants  varies  between  wide  limits  depend- 
ing upon  the  variety  and  the  richness  of  the  soil.  Varieties  which  pro- 
duce long  vines  are  given  more  space  than  those  with  short  vine  growth 
and  on  a  rich  soil  more  space  is  usually  given  than  on  a  poor  one.  For 
varieties  producing  medium  to  long  growing  vines  the  rows  are  spaced 
4  to  6  feet  apart  and  the  plants  are  set  12  to  18  inches  apart  in  the  row, 
15  inches  being  a  common  distance.  Varieties  producing  short  vines 
are  planted  in  rows  3  to  4  feet  apart  in  most  regions.  On  the  Eastern 
Shore  of  Virginia  and  in  some  other  regions  the  plants  are  set  16  to  22 
inches  apart  in  rows  about  30  inches  apart  for  the  Yellow  Jersey  variety. 
Sometimes  when  the  plants  are  set  22  inches  apart  in  the  row  two  shps 
are  set  in  each  hill.  In  New  Jersey  the  rows  are  spaced  2}i  to  3  feet 
apart  with  the  plants  22  to  30  inches  apart  in  the  row  for  cultivating 
both  ways.  If  cultivation  is  to  be  in  only  one  direction  the  plants  are 
spaced  18  to  25  inches  apart  in  the  row.  Experiments  in  Louisiana  for 
3  years  resulted  in  favor  of  setting  the  plants  18  inches  apart.  The  yields 
of  merchantable  potatoes  per  acre  was  252  bushels  for  8-inch  spacing, 
258.31  for  12  inches,  275  for  15  inches,  281.82  for  18  inches.  Experiments 
in  Georgia  for  1  year  showed  a  larger  yield  for  plants  set  18  inches  apart 
than  for  those  set  either  24  or  30  inches  apart.  In  the  Georgia  experi- 
ment the  Southern  Queen  and  Pumpkin  Yam  varieties  were  used. 

Sweet  potato  plants  are  set  by  hand  or  by  transplanting  machinery. 
When  planted  by  hand  the  various  methods  described  in  Chapter  IX  are 
used.  Wooden  tongs  with  which  the  plant  can  be  caught  by  the  root 
and  thrust  into  the  soil,  are  used  by  some  growers.  The  tongs  cannot 
be  used  alone  to  good  advantage  unless  the  soil  is  well  prepared  and  is 
loose  at  the  time  of  setting.  An  implement  known  as  a  "shovel"  con- 
sisting of  a  piece  of  lath  sharpened  to  a  flat  point,  is  sometimes  used  in 
connection  with  the  tongs.  This  is  used  to  open  the  hole  for  the  plant. 
The  operator  carries  the  tongs  in  the  left  hand  and  the  shovel  in  the 
right.  Vine  cuttings  are  usually  pressed  into  the  soil  with  a  long  notched 
stick.  The  cuttings  are  dropped  at  the  proper  distances  and  the  planters 
place  the  notch  of  the  stick  over  the  middle  of  the  cutting  and  force  it 
into  the  soil  to  the  depth  of  3  or  4  inches.  With  any  of  the  hand  methods 
of  setting  plants  or  cuttings  it  is  important  to  pack  the  soil  around  them 
to  prevent  rapid  drying. 

Cultivation. — The  methods  of  cultivating  sweet  potatoes  are  not  very 
different  from  those  employed  with  other  farm  crops.  In  a  large  part 
of  the  South  they  receive  less  cultivation  than  most  other  vegetables  and 
in  many  instances  less  than  cotton  and  corn.  They  should,  however,  be 
cultivated  often  enough  to  keep  the  weeds  under  control  and  to  prevent 
a  hard  crust  from  forming  on  the  soil.     Cultivation  is  done  with  one-horse 


THE  POTATO  CROPS  313 

cultivators,  sweeps,  or  with  gang  cultivators  drawn  by  two  horses.  As 
a  rule  the  soil  is  worked  toward  the  row  to  widen  the  ridge.  Cultivation 
should  be  continued  until  the  vines  meet  in  the  middles,  but  after  this 
no  attention  is  needed  except  to  pull  the  large  weeds  by  hand. 

Difference  of  opinion  exists  regarding  the  advisability  of  moving  the 
vines  so  that  cultivation  can  be  continued  late  in  the  season.  Many 
growers  turn  the  vines  first  to  one  side  of  the  row  and  then  to  the  other 
while  cultivation  is  going  on.  Experiments  by  Starnes  in  Georgia  (141) 
indicate  that  disturbing  the  vines  reduces  the  yield.  The  yield  of  sweet 
potatoes  of  the  Pumpkin  Yam  variety  was  270.3  bushels  to  the  acre 
from  plants  not  disturbed  while  only  156.3  bushels  were  produced 
from  vines  which  were  not  allowed  to  root  at  the  joints.  This  experi- 
ment was  conducted  for  only  1  year  hence  is  not  conclusive.  Newman 
in  Arkansas  (107)  conducted  similar  experiments  for  2  years  with  the 
following  results: 

Vines  moved  for  cultivation  yielded  166  bushels,  while  those  not 
moved  produced  170.85  bushels  per  acre.  Vines  lifted  once  a  week 
produced  160.50  bushels  and  those  not  lifted  produced  169.45  bushels  per 
acre.  Where  the  vines  were  moved  for  cultivation  two  more  cultivations 
were  given  than  when  they  were  not  disturbed.  While  the  difference  in 
yields  from  plants  not  moved  and  those  that  were  moved  is  not  great, 
it  seems  safe  to  say  that  disturbing  the  vines  after  they  have  grown  to 
considerable  length  is  not  justified  and  is  hkely  to  reduce  the  yield. 

Pruning  back  the  vines  has  been  followed  by  some  growers  with  the 
idea  that  keeping  down  foliage  growth  stimulates  development  of  roots. 
Results  of  experiments  by  Garcia  (51)  in  New  Mexico  and  Starnes  (141) 
in  Georgia  indicate  that  cutting  back  the  vines  materially  reduces  the 
yield.  In  New  Mexico  the  experiments  were  carried  on  for  2  years 
with  results  as  follows:  Hills  pruned  back  to  12  inches  in  diameter  pro- 
duced 6,012  pounds  to  the  acre,  those  pruned  back  to  24  inches  produced 
8,690  pounds,  those  cut  back  to  36  inches  produced  10,857  pounds  while 
the  plants  not  disturbed  produced  16,520  pounds  of  potatoes  to  the  acre. 
In  Georgia  (141)  the  undisturbed  plants  produced  201.3  bushels  per  acre, 
plants  pinched  back  weekly  to  2  feet  throughout  the  season  produced 
104.9  bushels  and  those  cut  back  weekly  to  2  feet  after  September  1 
produced  only  50.1  bushels  to  the  acre.  While  the  experiment  in  Georgia 
was  carried  on  for  only  1  year  the  results  are  so  striking  that  they  are  worth 
considering.  The  very  small  yield  from  the  plants  which  were  cut  back 
after  September  1  may  have  been  due  to  the  fact  that  only  the  older 
leaves  were  left  on  the  vines  after  the  cutting  back.  The  plants  which 
were  cut  back  throughout  the  season  had  undoubtedly  developed  new 
vines  and  new  leaves  from  the  older  branches  and  from  the  main  stem 
of  the  plant.  These  new  leaves  would  be  much  more  active  than  the 
older  leaves  on  the  vines  cut  back  after  September  1. 


314  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

Varieties. — There  are  at  least  two  hundred  names  given  to  the 
varieties  of  sweet  potatoes  grown  in  the  United  States,  but  not  over 
forty  true  varieties  exist.  Not  over  ten  varieties  are  of  commercial 
importance  and  five  of  these  constitute  the  bulk  of  the  commercial  crop. 

Various  attempts  have  been  made  to  classify  varieties  of  sweet  potatoes. 
Price  (118)  classified  them  into  three  groups  based  on  the  shape  of  the 
leaves.  He  then  described  each  variety,  but  as  no  key  was  given  except 
that  referring  to  the  shape  of  the  leaves  it  is  impossible  to  determine 
a  variety  if  the  name  is  doubtful  or  unknown.  Groth  (57)  worked  out 
a  system  of  classification  based  on  shape  of  leaf,  size  of  leaf,  length  of 
stem,  color  of  stem,  size  of  stem,  presence  of  star,  color  of  lower  surface  of 
veins,  arrangement  of  hairs  on  upper  and  lower  surface  of  leaves,  outside 
color  of  tubers,  color  of  flesh  and  distinctness  of  wood  elements  in  tuber. 
This  system  is  a  great  improvement  over  the  one  advanced  by  Price, 
but,  since  some  of  the  characters  used  vary  greatly  under  different 
conditions  they  are  not  entirely  rehable.  The  terms  "size  of  leaf," 
"size  of  stem"  and  "length  of  vine"  as  used  by  Groth  are  not  reliable 
characters  since  the  richness  of  the  soil  and  the  weather  conditions 
greatl}^  influence  all  of  these.  Some  of  the  varieties  described  as  having 
short  stems  (under  4  feet)  grow  to  a  length  of  6  to  10  feet  in  nearly  all 
regions  where  they  are  grown  commercially. 

The  latest  and  perhaps  the  most  complete  system  of  classification 
is  that  published  by  Thompson  and  Beattie  (161).  Under  this  system  the 
varieties  showing  a  marked  similarity  are  grouped  together  in  eight  well- 
defined  groups,  each  being  distinct  and  easily  recognized.  By  means  of 
a  simple  key  the  group  to  which  anj^  variety  belongs  can  be  determined. 
Each  group  has  been  given  the  name  of  the  most  widely  known,  or  the 
most  typical  variety.  Three  of  the  large  groups  have  been  divided  into 
sections  to  simplify  the  procedure  of  identification.  The  key  to  the 
groups  is  as  follows: 

I.  Leaves  deeply  lobed  or  parted  (1  and  2). 

1.  Leaves  with  deep  purple  stain  at  base  of  leaf  blade — Ticotea  group. 

2.  Leaves  without  purple  stain  at  base  of  leaf  blade — Belmont  group. 
II.  Leaves  not  deeply  lobed  or  parted  (1  and  2). 

1.  Leaves  with  purple  stain  at  the  base  of  leaf  blade  (A  and  B). 

A.  Stems  purple  or  greenish  with  a  decided  tinge  of  purple — Spanish  group. 

B.  Stems  green  (a  and  b). 

(a)  Leaves  entire  to  slightly  siiouldcred:  roots  white — Shanghai  group. 
{b)  Leaves  toothed  with  six  to  ten  low,  marginal  teeth,  or  entire;  roots 
salmon,  or  yellow  tinged  with  salmon — Florida  group. 

2.  Leaves  without  purple  stain  at  the  base  of  the  leaf  blade  (A  and  B). 

A.  Stems  purple — Southern  Queen  group. 

B.  Stems  green  (a  and  b). 

(n)  Stems  medium  to  large  in  size;  roots  fusiform,  yellow  tinged  with — 
salmon  with  light  yellow  veins — Pumpkin  group. 

(6)  Stems  slender;  roots  russet-yellow  or  red,  ovoid  to  fusiform^ 
Jersey  group. 


THE  POTATO  CROPS  315 

In  attempting  to  identify  a  variety,  the  group  to  which  it  belongs 
should  be  determined  by  means  of  the  key,  then  the  group  description 
should  be  read  and  finally  the  description  of  the  varieties  in  the  group 
or  section  of  the  group  in  case  it  is  divided  into  sections.  The  group 
description  has  been  made  from  the  descriptions  of  the  varieties  belonging 
to  the  group  and  not  from  any  particular  variety. 

The  eight  groups  and  the  varieties  belonging  to  them  are  listed  below. 

Ticotea  Group. — This  group  contains  only  two  varieties,  Ticotea 
and  Koali  Sandwitch,  and  is  not  important. 

Belmont  Group. — This  is  one  of  the  large  groups  and  is  divided  into 
two  sections  as  follows: 

Vines  long  creeping — Belmont  section. 

Vines  very  short  and  bushy — Bunch  section. 

Belmont  (.also  called  Georgia  and  Dunton's  Improved),  Eclipse  Sugar  Yam, 
Vineless  Pumpkin  Yam,  Georgia  (Old  Time  Yam),  Yellow  Yam  and  White  Sealy 
belong  to  the  Belmont  Section. 

Gros  Grandia  and  Bunch  Candy  Yam  (also  called  Bunch  Yam,  Vineless,  Prolific 
and  Gold  Coin)  belong  to  the  Bunch  section. 

Spanish  Group. — The  varieties  in  the  Spanish  group  are  separated 
into  three  sections  as  follows: 

Roots  light  yellow  to  russet  yellow — Yellow  Spanish  section. 

Roots  light  yellow  tinged  more  or  less  with  rose,  or  deep  rose — Bermuda  section. 

Roots  dark  red  to  purple — Red  Spanish  Section. 

In  the  Yellow  Spanish  section  the  roots  are  light  yellow  in  color,  usually  very 
irregular,  strongly  ribbed  and  veined,  but  sometimes  fairly  smooth  and  regular; 
flesh  white  or  yellow.  The  varieties  in  this  section  are  Pierson  (Arkansas  Beauty, 
California  Golden,  Early  General  Grant,  Golden  Skin  and  Button's  Beauty),  Yellow 
Strasburg  (Extra  Early  Golden,  Adams),  Yellow  Spanish  (Bronzed  Spanish),  and 
Triumph. 

The  roots  of  the  Bermuda  section  are  light  yellow,  more  or  less  overlaid  with 
transverse  dashes  and  bands  of  rose,  sometimes  washed  with  rose,  or  deep  rose  to 
purple,  usually  very  irregular,  strongly  ribbed  and  veined,  but  some  varieties  are  quite 
smooth  and  regular.  The  varieties  belonging  to  this  section  are  Red  Bermuda  (Cuba 
Yam,  Poreland,  Yellow  Red),  Red  Brazil  or  Red  Brazilian,  Porto  Rico  (Golden 
Beauty,  Key  West  Yam),  Key  West  Yam  and  Creola. 

Roots  of  the  Red  Spanish  section  are  more  regular  and  not  so  constricted;  the 
flesh  is  white  tinged  with  purple  beneath  the  skin  and  at  the  center.  This  section  con- 
tains Red  Spanish  (Black  Spanish),  Purple  Yam  or  "Nigger  Choker"  and  Dahomey. 

Shanghai  Group. — Only  two  varieties  belong  to  this  group  Shanghai 
(Early  Golden)  and  Minnet  Yam,  and  neither  is  important, 

Florida  Group. — Three  varieties  belong  to  this  group,  Florida 
(Arizona  Prolific,  Providence),  General  Grant  Vineless  and  Nancy  Hall. 
The  Nancy  Hall  is  the  most  important  commercial  variety  grown  in  the 
South.     The  other  two  varieties  are  not  important. 

Southern  Queen  Group. — The  White  Yam  and  Southern  Queen  are  the 
only  varieties  in  this  group,  the  latter  being  one  of  the  best  known 


316  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

varieties  of  sweet  potatoes.  It  is  a  good  keeper,  but  is  of  poor  quality 
until  late  in  the  storage  season.  It  is  known  under  the  following  names : 
Hayman,  California  Yam,  Arkansas  Hybrid,  Brazilian,  Cuban,  Common 
Yam,  Johnson's  Bahama,  Archer's  Hybrid,  Hamburg,  Caroline  Lee,  Cull- 
man   Cream,    Catawba   White,  Catawba  Yellow  and  Ballinger's  Pride. 

Pumpkin  Group. — This  group  contains  four  varieties.  Pumpkin  Yam, 
(Early  Yellow,  Spanish  Yam),  Norton,  Dooley  and  White  Gilke.  Only 
two  of  these,  Pumpkin  Yam  and  Dooley,  are  of  much  importance  and  these 
only  for  home  use  in  the  South  and  on  southern  markets. 

Jersey  Group. — The  Jersey  group  is  separated  into  the  following 
sections: 

.  j  Roots  red — Red  Jersey 

[  Roots  russet-yellow — 2 

[  Stems  very  short  and  bushy — Bush 

1  Stems  long — 3 
„  J  Stems  medium  to  large — Big  Stem  Jersey 

\  Stems  slender — Yellow  Jersey 

The  Red  Jersey  section  contains  the  Red  Jersey  (Connelly's  Early  Red,  Early 
Red  Carolina,  Red  Nansemond,  Van  Nest  Red)  and  Japan  brown,  the  latter  being  of 
no  commercial  importance. 

The  stems  of  the  bush  section  are  very  short  (1  to  23^2  feet)  rather  thick  and  coarse, 
with  very  short  internodes  and  crowded  leaves.  The  varieties  in  this  section  are 
Vineland  Bush,  Georgia  Buck  and  Vineless  Bunch  Nansemond. 

The  Big  Stem  Jersey  section  contains  the  Phillipili  and  Big  Stem  Jersey,  sometimes 
called  Florida  and  Improved  Big  Stem. 

The  Yellow  Jersey  section  contains  two  varieties.  Yellow  Jersey  and  Gold  Skin. 
The  Yellow  Jersey  is  known  under  the  following  names,  Nansemond,  Early  Nanse- 
mond, Yellow  Nansemond,  Early  Carolina,  Big  Leaf  Early  Yellow  Jersey,  McCoy's 
Sweets,  Red  Nose,  Up  Rivers  and  Cedarville. 

The  Big  Stem  Jersey  and  the  Yellow  Jersey  are  by  far  the  most  important  varieties 
grown  for  northern  markets.  All  of  the  varieties  in  the  Jersey  group  are  dry  and 
mealy. 

Diseases. — Sweet  potatoes  are  subject  to  diseases  in  the  field  and  rots 
in  storage.  Field  diseases  may  be  divided  into  root  and  stem  diseases 
and  leaf  diseases.  Stem-rot,  black-rot,  foot-rot,  scurf  and  root-rot 
affect  the  stems  and  roots,  while  leaf-blight,  leaf-spot  and  white  rust 
affect  the  foliage.  The  leaf  diseases  have  never  been  serious  enough  to 
require  remedial  measures. 

Storage  rots  include  soft-rot,  ring-rot,  black-rot,  dry-rot,  Java  Ijlack- 
rot  and  charcoal-rot.  Losses  from  these  diseases  are  often  heavy  in 
storage  but  may  be  reduced  by  proper  storage  methods. 

The  description  and  control  measures  for  the  various  diseases  of  sweet 
potatoes  are  adapted  from  Farmers  Bull.  1059  by  Harter  (64). 

Stem-rot  (Fusarium  batatatis  or  F.  hyperoxysporum) . — The  leaves  of 
plants  affected  with  stem-rot  become  dull  in  color  and  then  yellowed 
between  the  veins  and  somewhat  puckered.     These  symptoms  are  followed 


THE  POTATO  CROPS  317 

by  wilting  of  the  vines.  The  stems  are  blackened  inside  and  the  discolora- 
tion may  extend  3  to  5  feet  from  the  hill.  The  organism  causing  stem-rot 
may  also  invade  the  roots,  forming  a  blackened  ring  about  a  quarter  of  an 
inch  below  the  surface  of  the  potato.  Slips  from  diseased  potatoes  are 
likely  to  be  diseased. 

The  fungus  lives  over  in  sweet  potatoes  in  storage  and  grows  from 
diseased  seed  into  the  plants  developed  from  them.  It  is  important, 
therefore,  to  use  only  healthy  seed  and  this  can  be  secured  by  selection  at 
digging  time  while  the  potatoes  are  still  attached  to  the  vines.  Each 
hill  selected  should  be  tested  by  spHtting  the  stem  and  potatoes  should  be 
taken  for  seed  only  from  plants  whose  stems  are  not  streaked  with 
black.  The  seed  stock  should  be  stored  in  a  part  of  the  storage  house 
where  it  will  not  come  in  contact  with  the  general  stock.  Disinfection 
of  the  seed  with  corrosive  sublimate,  the  use  of  fresh  disease-free  soil  in 
the  plant  bed,  crop  rotation  and  the  growing  of  seed  from  vine  cuttings 
also  aid  in  controlling  stem-rot.  When  cuttings  are  used  for  growing 
seed  the  vines  used  should  be  free  from  disease  and  planted  on  ground 
that  has  not  produced  sweet  potatoes  for  at  least  6  years. 

Black-rot  (Sphaeronema  fimbriatum) . — Black-rot  may  attack  any 
under-ground  portion  of  the  plant.  On  the  tuber  the  fungus  produces 
dark  to  nearly  black  somewhat  sunken,  more  or  less  circular  spots  on  the 
surface.  These  spots  enlarge  and  frequently  nearly  the  whole  potato  is 
involved.  On  the  stem  the  infection  begins  as  small  black  spots  which 
gradually  enlarge  until  the  whole  stem  is  rotted  off.  Plants  grown  from 
tubers  affected  with  black-rot  are  likely  to  have  the  disease.  Black-rot 
causes  serious  storage  losses. 

The  control  measures  mentioned  for  stem-rot  should  be  applied  to 
black-rot.  If  black-rot  alone  is  present  the  seed  may  be  selected  in  the 
spring. 

Foot-rot  (Plenodomus  destruens). — This  disease  appears  first  as  small 
brown  to  black  spots  on  the  stem  of  the  plant  near  the  ground.  Its 
growth  is  very  slow  at  first  but  eventually  it  girdles  the  plant.  Soon 
after  this  the  plant  wilts  and  round,  black  specks,  just  visible  to  the 
naked  eye,  appear  in  the  diseased  areas.  These  are  the  fruiting  bodies. 
The  organism  may  grow  from  an  infected  stem  on  to  the  roots  and  cause  a 
brown,  rather  firm  rot  of  the  potato.  Later  fruiting  bodies  standing 
close  together  develop  on  the  surface  in  the  form  of  pimple-like  pro- 
tuberances. This  disease  is  not  so  widely  distributed  as  stem-rot  and 
black-rot. 

Seed  selection,  use  of  clean  plant  beds  and  crop  rotation  are  the  con- 
trol measures  recommended.  The  disease  is  carried  from  the  field  to 
the  storage  house  on  the  potatoes  and  back  to  the  field  on  the  slips. 

Scurf  (Soil  Stain  or  Jersey  mark)  (Monilochaetes  infuscans). — 
Scurf  appears  as  a  brown  discoloration  on  the  surface  of  underground 


318  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

parts  of  the  plant.  The  fungus  does  not  break  the  skin  and  may  be  easily 
scraped  off  by  the  finger  nail.  It  is  worse  on  heavy  soils  and  on  soils 
containing  a  large  quantity  of  organic  matter.  It  is  also  worse  during  a 
wet  season  and  on  low  ground.  Loss  by  this  disease  is  not  heavy  compared 
to  some  of  the  others. 

Treating  the  seed  with  corrosive  sublimate  solution  and  use  of  fresh 
soil  for  the  seed  bed  are  control  measures  suggested. 

Root- ROT  {Ozonium  omnivorum). — The  root-rot  is  best  known  as  the 
Texas  root-rot  of  cotton  and  alfalfa.  The  organism  gains  access  to  the 
plant  on  the  underground  parts  and  spreads  in  both  directions.  It  may 
enter  the  potato  or  cause  spots  on  the  surface.  In  either  case  a  brown 
rot  is  produced  resulting  in  the  complete  destruction  of  the  potato. 
The  organism  lives  over  winter  in  the  soil  on  dead  vegetable  matter,  or  in 
the  far  South,  probably  on  winter  crops.  It  is  killed  by  hard  freezing  and 
is  therefore  restricted  to  the  southern  states. 

This  disease  is  difficult  to  control  because  it  grows  on  a  great  variety 
of  plants.  Deep,  clean  cultivation,  crop  rotation  and  selection  of 
disease-free  seed  are  recommended. 

Leaf-blight  {Phyllostida  batatas). — Leaf-blight  appears  on  the  upper 
side  of  the  leaf  as  roundish  or  angular  spots  one-eighth  to  one-half  inch 
in  diameter  and  separated  from  the  healthy  tissue  by  a  dark  line.  Inside 
this  line  is  a  strip  of  brownish  tissue  which  has  lost  most  of  its  green  color. 
Inside  this  ring  is  a  circular  area,  much  lighter  in  color,  in  which  a  number 
of  black  bodies  containing  spores  are  found.  So  far  as  is  known  this 
fungus  does  not  attack  other  plants;  neither  does  it  occur  on  other  parts 
of  the  plant  than  the  leaf. 

Leaf-blight  occurs  practically  every  year  in  the  southern  states  but  is 
less  common  in  New  Jersey,  Delaware,  Maryland,  Kansas,  Iowa  and 
IlHnois.     It  is  seldom  serious   enough  to   require  remedial  measures. 

Leaf-spot  (Septoria  hataticola). — The  leaf-spot  fungus  produces  spots 
on  the  leaves  similar  to  leaf-bhght.  The  spots,  scattered  indiscriminately 
over  the  foliage,  are  white,  surrounded  with  a  brown  border.  Within 
these  white  areas  one  or  more  black  specks  may  be  found.  These  specks 
contain  spores  which  are  carried  by  insects  and  other  agencies  to  other 
leaves.  The  disease  probably  lives  over  winter  on  the  dead  leaves  in 
the  field. 

It  is  not  serious  enough  anywhere  to  require  remedial  measures. 

White-rust  (Albugo  ipomoeae-panduranae) . — The  first  symptom  of 
this  disease  is  a  loss  of  the  green  color  in  spots  on  the  underside  of  the  leaf. 
Later  these  spots  become  brown  and  covered  with  whitish,  viscid  growth 
which  is  finally  more  or  less  powdery.  This  disease  causes  no  great 
amount  of  harm,  although  it  is  widely  distributed  and  occurs  on  a  number 
of  other  plants,  including  wild  morning  glories. 


THE  POTATO  CROPS  319 

Soft- ROT  (Rhizopus  nigricans). — Soft-rot  is  one  of  the  most  destruc- 
tive diseases  in  the  sweet-potato  storage  house.  The  decay  begins  at  one 
end  of  the  potato  and  grows  rapidly,  requiring  but  a  few  days  with  high 
temperatures  and  a  high  relative  humidity  to  destroy  the  entire  potato. 
The  potatoes  are  first  rendered  soft,  watery  and  stringy,  but  later  they 
become  firm,  hard  and  brittle.  One  soft-rot  potato  may  communicate 
the  disease  to  all  of  the  potatoes  in  contact  with  it.  The  spores  of  the 
black  mold  produced  on  the  surface  may  be  carried  by  flies  to  other 
potatoes  or  may  be  communicated  to  them  by  handling. 

Ring-rot. — This  disease  is  caused  by  the  same  mold  (common  bread 
mold)  as  the  soft-rot.  Ring-rot  differs  from  soft-rot  in  that  the  decay 
begins  at  a  point  between  the  two  ends  instead  of  at  the  ends.  From  the 
point  of  infection  the  decay  forms  a  ring  around  the  potato. 

Dry-rot  (Diaporthe  hatatatis). — Dr^'-rot  is  a  disease  of  sweet  potatoes 
in  storage.  It  generally  begins  at  the  end  of  the  potato,  producing  a 
firm  brown  rot.  It  grows  slowly,  the  potato  finally  becoming  dry,  hard 
and  mummified.  Small  domelike  protuberances  just  visible  to  the 
naked  eye  finally  cover  the  entire  surface.  If  the  skin  is  scraped  shghtly, 
the  tissue  beneath  presents  a  coal-black  appearance. 

Dry-rot  is  widely  distributed,  but  is  not  one  of  the  more  serious 
storage  troubles. 

Java  Black-rot  {Diplodia  tubericola). — This  disease  is  strictly  a 
storage  trouble.  It  is  similar  in  appearance  to  dry-rot  and  is  widely 
distributed,  but  is  more  prevalent  in  the  South.  The  disease  begins  at 
the  end  and  grows  very  slowly,  requiring  under  normal  storage  conditions 
from  4  to  8  weeks  to  destroy  the  potato. 

Charcoal-rot  (Sclerotium  bataticola). — This  storage  rot  is  of  less 
economic  importance  than  most  of  the  others.  It  differs  from  the  others 
of  a  similar  appearance  by  the  production  by  the  fungus  of  minute 
spherical  resting  bodies  throughout  the  potato,  rarely  on  the  surface. 
These  bodies  are  coal  black. 

Control  of  Storage  Rots. — Elimination  of  the  field  diseases 
which  are  also  troublesome  is  one  of  the  important  control  measures. 
Careful  handling  to  prevent  any  breaking  of  the  skin  or  bruising  of 
the  surface  should  be  practiced  since  many  of  the  diseases  gain  entrance 
through  the  injured  tissues.  Thorough  curing  and  maintaining  good 
storage  conditions  will  materially  aid  in  controUing  storage  rots.  (See 
"Storage.") 

Sweet  Potato  Weevil.— The  sweet  potato  weevil  {Cylas  formicarius 
Fab.)  is  a  slender  snout-beetle  about  one-fourth  of  an  inch  long.  It  is 
very  destructive  to  the  sweet  potato  crop  in  portions  of  Texas,  Louisiana, 
Mississippi,  Alabama  and  Florida.  Chittenden  (24)  gives  an  estimate 
of  the  loss  by  this  insect  in  Texas,  Louisiana  and  Florida  in  1917,  amount- 
ing to  $2,800,000. 


320  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

This  insect  feeds  upon  sweet  potatoes  and  closely  related  plants,  espe- 
cially a  species  of  wild  morning  glory  found  growing  in  sandy  places  along 
the  seashore  of  Florida  and  other  tropical  and  sub-tropical  regions.  The 
beetles  feed  on  the  leaves,  vines  and  roots  of  the  sweet  potato.  Chitten- 
den states  that  the  first-appearing  weevils  feed  upon  the  leaves,  stems 
and  vines,  then  enough  eggs  are  deposited  at  the  base  of  the  vine  to 
girdle  it  more  or  less  completely. 

The  young  larvae  eat  into  the  flesh  of  the  potato,  leaving  an  iri-egular 
burrow  lined  with  excrement.  They  feed  in  the  root  until  their  full  growth 
is  reached  and  pass  the  pupa  stage  within  the  potato. 

Chittenden  suggests  the  following  control  measures: 

1.  Do  everything  possible  to  prevent  the  transportation  of  weevil-infested 
plants  to  uninfested  districts.  Do  not  use  seed  sweet  potatoes,  slips  or  draws 
from  weevil-infested  localities   .    .    . 

2.  Never  use  the  same  land  for  growing  sweet  potatoes  year  after  year  when 
weevils  are  present.  Rotate  with  cotton,  corn,  tobacco,  Irish  potatoes,  peanuts 
or  any  other  profitable  crop. 

3.  Harvest  promptly  and  thoroughly  all  tubers  or  roots  .    .    . 

4.  Disinfect  all  weevily  roots  whenever  advisable  (e.g.  when  soon  to  be 
eaten)  with  carbon  disulphid  or  other  fumigant. 

5.  Destroy  the  weevils  in  badly  infested  and  inferior  roots  by  cooking  and 
feeding  to  hogs,  poultry,  or  cattle   .    .    . 

6.  After  harvesting  clean  up  the  culls,  vines,  remnants,  and  rubbish  remain- 
ing in  the  fields  and  burn  promptly  and  thereafter  keep  the  fields  clean  at  all  times. 

7.  Keep  down  volunteer  sweet  potatoes  and  all  plants  of  the  morning  glory 
family,  whether  cultivated  or  wild. 

8.  Plant  the  new  crop  remote  from  the  seed  bed. 

9.  Spray  plants  with  arsenicals  for  first-appearing  weevils  on  leaves  and 
stems.  Dip  the  slips  and  other  propagating  material  into  arsenate  of  lead 
before  planting.  Kill  the  beetles  before  egg  laying  begins  and  whenever  they 
appear  in  numbers. 

10.  Observe  care  in  storage,  keeping  the  tubers  dry  at  all  times  to  prevent 
secondary  injury  from  rots   .    .    . 

Harvesting. — When  sweet  potatoes  are  grown  for  the  early  market 
they  may  be  harvested  as  soon  as  the  tubers  reach  marketable  size, 
regardless  of  the  stage  of  maturity.  The  main  crop,  which  is  intended 
for  storage  should  be  well  matured  before  digging.  When  the  potatoes 
are  mature  a  broken  or  cut  surface  dries  on  exposure  to  the  air,  while  an 
immature  one  remains  moist  and  turns  dark  in  color.  However,  in 
regions  where  early  frosts  occur  the  potatoes  should  be  dug  about  the 
time  the  first  hard  frost  occurs,  regardless  of  their  stage  of  maturity.  If 
frost  kills  the  vines  the  potatoes  should  be  dug  immediately  as  decay 
sets  in  on  the  dead  vines  and  may  pass  down  to  the  roots.  In  case  it  is 
impossible  to  dig  immediately  the  vines  should  be  cut  away  and  loose 
soil  thrown  ovqv  the  rows  for  protection  from  cold. 


THE  POTATO  CROPS  321 

The  implement  used  to  dig  sweet  potatoes  should  be  one  that  does 
not  cut  or  bruise  the  roots.  One  of  the  best  types  of  diggers  is  a  plow 
with  roUing  colters  on  the  beam  to  cut  the  vines  and  with  rods  attached 
to  the  small  moldboard  to  free  the  roots  from  the  soil.  A  large  turnplow 
or  a  "middle  buster"  may  be  used.  The  machine  digger  used  for  Irish 
potatoes  should  not  be  used  in  digging  sweet  potatoes  as  the  roots  would 
be  bruised  in  being  carried  over  the  rods.  After  the  potatoes  are  plowed 
out  they  are  scratched  out  by  hand  and  left  on  the  surface  of  the  soil  long 
enough  to  dry.  The  digging  should  be  done,  if  possible,  when  the  weather 
is  bright  and  the  soil  dry. 

Sweet  potatoes  should  be  graded  somewhat  as  they  are  gathered  so 
as  to  eliminate  extra  handhng.  Where  they  are  marketed  as  soon  as 
harvested  it  is  a  common  practice  to  grade  and  pack  in  the  field.  If  the 
potatoes  are  to  be  stored  it  is  a  good  plan  to  go  over  the  rows  and  pick 
up  the  sound  marketable  potatoes  in  one  basket,  then  gather  the  seed 
stock  in  another  and  put  the  injured  ones  in  still  another.  This  ehmi- 
nates  extra  handhng  and  thereby  reduces  the  loss  by  decay,  since  in  any 
handling  there  is  some  bruising  and  this  hastens  decay.  The  baskets  or 
other  containers  used  for  gathering  the  potatoes  should  be  loaded  on  a 
wagon  with  springs  and  hauled  direct  to  the  storage  house.  The  potatoes 
should  never  be  dumped  into  the  wagon  bed. 

Grading. — When  the  potatoes  are  to  be  marketed  from  storage  they 
should  be  carefully  graded,  no  matter  how  well  they  were  graded  at 
harvest  time.  The  market  prefers  a  medium-sized,  uniform  type  of 
sweet  potato,  free  from  bruises  and  decayed  spots.  The  U.  S.  Bureau  of 
Markets  recommends  four  grades,  U.  S.  Grade  No.  1,  U.  S.  Grade  No.  2, 
U.  S.  Jumbo  Grade  and  U.  S.  Grade  No.  3.  These  grade  specifications 
are  as  follows: 

U.  S.  Grade  No.  1  shall  consist  of  sound  sweet  potatoes  of  similar  varietal 
characteristics  which  are  practically  free  from  dirt  or  other  foreign  matter,  frost 
injury,  decay,  bruises,  cuts,  scars,  cracks  and  damage  caused  by  heat,  disease, 
insects  (including  weevils),  or  mechanical  or  other  means. 

The  diameter  of  each  sweet  potato  shall  not  be  less  than  ly^  inches  nor  more 
than  3>^  inches,  and  the  length  shall  not  be  less  than  4  inches  nor  more  than 
10  inches,  but  the  length  may  be  less  than  4  inches  if  the  diameter  is  2>^  inches 
or  more. 

In  order  to  allow  for  variations  incident  to  commercial  grading  and  handling, 
5  per  cent,  by  weight,  of  any  lot  may  not  meet  the  requirements  as  to  diameter 
and  length,  and  in  addition,  6  per  cent,  by  weight,  may  be  below  the  remaining 
requirements  of  the  grade. 

Any  lot  in  which  the  diameter  is  not  less  than  1  ^  inches  and  which  contains 
a  greater  percentage  by  weight  of  sweet  potatoes  below  1^^  inches  than  is  per- 
mitted in  U.  S.  Grade  No.  1,  but  which  otherwise  meets  the  requirements  of 
such  grade  shall  be  designated  as  U.  S.  Grade  No.  1  Medium. 


322  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

Any  lot  in  which  the  length  is  not  less  than  6  inches  nor  more  than  12  inches 
and  which  contains  a  greater  percentage  by  weight  of  sweet  potatoes  above  10 
inches  in  length  than  is  permitted  in  U.  S.  Grade  No.  1,  but  which  otherwise 
meets  the  requirements  of  such  grade  shall  be  designated  as  U.  S.  Grade  No.  1 
Long. 

U.  S.  Grade  No.  2  shall  consist  of  sound  sweet  potatoes  of  similar  varietal 
characteristics,  not  meeting  the  requirements  of  the  foregoing  grades,  which  are 
free  from  serious  damage  caused  by  dirt  or  other  foreign  matter,  frost  injury, 
decay,  bruises,  cuts,  scars,  cracks,  heat,  disease,  insects  or  mechanical  or  other 
means,  and  which  are  not  less  than  1^  inches  nor  more  than  3>^  inches  in 
diameter. 

In  order  to  allow  for  variations  incident  to  commercial  grading  and  handling, 
5  per  cent  by  weight  of  any  lot  may  not  meet  the  requirements  as  to  diameter, 
and,  in  addition,  6  per  cent  by  weight  may  be  below  the  remaining  requirements 
of  this  grade. 

U.  S.  Jumbo  Grade  shall  consist  of  sound  sweet  potatoes  of  similar  varietal 
characteristics,  which  are  free  from  serious  damage  caused  by  dirt  or  other 
foreign  matter,  frost  injury,  decay,  bruises,  cuts,  scars,  cracks,  heat,  disease, 
insects,  or  mechanical  or  other  means,  and  which  are  not  less  than  3}^^  inches  in 
diameter. 

In  order  to  allow  for  variations  incident  to  commercial  grading  and  handling, 
5  per  cent  by  weight  of  any  lot  may  be  less  than  the  diameter  prescribed,  and, 
in  addition,  6  per  cent  by  weight  maj^  be  below  the  remaining  requirements  of 
this  grade. 

U.  S.  Grade  No.  3  shall  consist  of  sweet  potatoes  not  meeting  the  require- 
ments of  any  of  the  foregoing  grades. 

Most  growers  should  use  only  two  grades,  1  and  2,  leaving  the  others 
for  feeding  to  live  stock.  In  some  cases  only  Grade  No.  1  should  be 
used,  but  in  this  case  only  the  potatoes  which  meet  the  requirement  of 
this  grade  should  be  packed. 

Packing.^ — Sweet  potatoes  should  be  put  up  in  neat,  attractive  pack- 
ages, that  are  substantial.  The  standard  veneer  barrel  with  a  burlap 
cover  is  often  used  in  summer  and  autumn,  while  in  winter  a  tight,  stave 
barrel  is  employed  to  some  extent.  Barrels  are  not  entirely  satisfactory 
since  they  are  too  large.  A  smaller  package,  such  as  a  bushel  box  or 
crate,  bushel  hamper  or  bushel  round  stave  basket,  is  becoming  popular. 
The  ordinary  hamper  is  too  frail,  for  a  product  as  heavy  as  sweet  potatoes, 
but  when  made  extra  strong  it  makes  a  satisfactory  and  attractive  pack- 
age. Sweet  potatoes  should  never  be  marketed  in  bags  or  in  bulk  as  they 
become  badly  bruised  when  so  handled. 

When  sweet  potatoes  are  marketed  in  cold  weather  they  should  be 
protected,  since  chilling  impairs  the  quahty  and  hastens  decay.  Pro- 
tection is  usually  given  by  lining  the  package  with  paper.  Cars  are 
often  lined  with  paper  and  in  very  cold  weather  they  are  heated. 

In  packing  only  one  grade  should  be  put  in  a  package  and  the  potatoes 
should  be  well  placed  so  that  the  package  will  be  full  when  it  reaches  the 


THE  POTATO  CROPS 


323 


market.  The  package  should  be  so  full  when  it  is  packed  that  consider- 
able pressure  is  necessary  to  get  the  cover  on.  This  will  hold  the  potatoes 
in  place  and  prevent  bruising  by  shaking  around  in  the  package. 

Storage.^ — The  improvement  in  the  methods  of  storage  during  the 
past  few  years  has  done  more  to  increase  the  value  of  the  sweet 
potato  crop  than  anything  else.  With  good  storage  it  is  no  longer 
necessary  to  put  the  potatoes  on  the  market  in  the  fall  when  the 
supply  is  greater  than  the  demand.  Nor  is  it  necessary  to  lose  30  per 
cent  of  the  crop  by  decay,  since  by  using  care  in  handling,  and  by 
storing  in  the  proper  type  of  storage  house  the  loss  by  decay  should  be 
less  than  5  per  cent. 

To  keep  sweet  potatoes  in  good  condition  they  must  be  (1)  well 
matured  before  digging,  (2)  carefully  handled,  (3)  well  dried  or  cured 
after  being  put  in  the  storage  house,  and  (4)  kept  at  a  uniform  and 
relatively  high  temperature  and  low  humidity  after  they  are  cured. 

The  stage  of  maturity  at  which  the  potatoes  should  be  dug  is  discussed 
under  "Harvesting." 

Careful  handling  is  important  since  the  sweet  potato  is  very  easily 
bruised  and  organisms  causing  decay  often  enter  the  injured  surface. 
Even  if  decay  does  not  set  in  the  bruised  areas  become  discolored  and 
hard,  thus  injuring  the  appearance  and  reducing  the  quality.     The  sweet 


Table  XLV. — Relation  of  Cut  or  Bruising  Injury  to  the  Keeping  of  Sweet 

Potatoes 

(Shrinkage  and  decay  averages  for  three  varieties  kept  at  a  temperature  of  50  to  55  degrees  F.,  seasons 
of  1917-1918  and  1918-1919) 


Variety  and 
condition 


Average     Shrink- 
weight    (  age  dur- 

at        I       ing 
harvest  j   curing, 
time,     j  19  days, 
lb.         per  cent 


Shrinkage  at  end  of — 


51 

days, 
per 
cent 


82  1     111  141 

days,  i  days,  days, 

per  j    per  per 

cent  cent  cent 


164 
days, 

per 
cent 


Weight 
at  end  of 
storage 
period, 


Loss  due  to 
decay, 
164  days 


Per 

cent 


Uninjured: 

Big  Stem  Jersey .  ,  1 42 .  56 

Nancy  Hall I  140.00 

Southern  Queen..  153. 09 


Total 

Average 

Injured,    cut  and .  . 

bruised: 
Big  Stem  Jersey 

Nancy  Hall 

Southern  Queen. 


435 


73.25 
46.06 
71.97 


6.59 

7.14 
7.83 


14.44 
18.52 
12.55 


19.75 
21.51 
14.67 


Total j    191.28   ]    

Average I    !      14 .  83 


23.59 
23.88 
16.54 


10.88 
11.03 
12.00 


27.09 
26.19 
18.64 


12.09 
12.12 
13.21 


30.33 
27.99 
20.06 


13.54  123.25  1.81 
13.10  121.56  0.84 
14.69     130.59         0.59 


.83  48.47  20.16 
29.5li  32.47  4.28 
21.88i      56.53         1.94 


1.27 
0.60 
0.38 


27.52 
9.29 
2.69 


324  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

potato  will  not  withstand  as  much  rough  handling  as  the  Irish  potato.  In 
fact  very  few  products  are  more  easily  injured  than  the  sweet  potato 
and  it  should  be  given  as  careful  handling  as  apples  and  oranges.  The 
importance  of  careful  handling  is  shown  by  results  of  experiments 
reported  by  Thompson  and  Beattie  (162). 

Table  XLV  shows  the  shrinkage  at  various  intervals  during  storage 
and  the  loss  due  to  decay  at  the  end  of  the  storage  period.  These  results 
were  secured  in  an  up-to-date  storage  house  on  the  Arlington 
Experimental  Farm,  Arlington,  Virginia. 

Every  potato  in  the  injured  lot  was  either  cut,  or  bruised.  Table 
XLV  shows  that  the  shrinkage  at  each  period  was  practically  twice  as  much 
in  the  injured  as  in  the  uninjured  lots  and  the  difference  would  have  been 
still  greater  in  a  storage  house  where  the  conditions  were  less  favorable 
than  in  this  one.  The  decay  was  nearly  14  per  cent  for  the  injured 
potatoes  and  less  than  1  per  cent  for  those  not  injured.  Under  poor 
storage  conditions  all  of  the  injured  potatoes  would  probably  have  rotted. 
The  shrinkage  and  the  loss  by  decay  was  greatest  in  the  Big  Stem  Jersey 
and  least  in  the  Southern  Queen.  The  loss  in  the  injured  lots  is  greater 
than  the  figures  for  shrinkage  and  decay  would  indicate  since  they  are 
very  unattractive  in  appearance  and  require  a  great  deal  of  trimming  in 
preparing  for  the  table. 

Curing. — Sweet  potatoes  are  "cured"  by  maintaining  a  high  tempera- 
ture, 80  to  95  degrees  F.,  with  good  ventilation,  for  a  period  of  10  days 
to  3  weeks.  The  length  of  time  depending  upon  the  weather  conditions 
and,  to  some  extent,  on  the  variety.  During  cloudy  or  rainy  weather, 
when  the  humidity  is  high,  a  longer  period  is  required  than  when  the 
humidity  is  low.  Ventilation  is  necessary  to  drive  ofT  the  moisture- 
laden  air.  The  curing  is  necessary  to  reduce  the  moisture  content  of  the 
sweet  potatoes  and  thus  prevent  the  development  of  decay.  During 
the  curing  process  the  potatoes  should  lose  6  to  8  per  cent  of  their  original 
weight.  The  doors  and  windows  of  the  storage  house  may  be  closed  at 
night  and  during  cloudy  and  rainy  days,  but  some  of  the  ventilators 
should  be  left  open  throughout  the  curing  period.  The  air  inside  the 
house  should  be  kept  at  a  higher  temperature  than  the  outside  air.  This 
will  prevent  moisture  from  being  deposited  on  the  walls  and  other  interior 
portions  of  the  house.  When  the  potatoes  are  thoroughly  cured  the 
temperature  should  be  reduced  gradually  to  about  55  degrees  F.  and  kept 
near  that  point  during  the  remainder  of  the  storage  period. 

Storage  Temperature. — Most  authorities  recommend  a  temperature 
of  50  to  55  degrees  F.  after  the  curing  period  and  this  has  proven  very 
satisfactory  in  practice.  Experiments  by  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agri- 
culture (162)  show  that  the  shrinkage  increased  as  the  temperature  was 
raised.  Table  XLVI  gives  the  loss  in  weight  at  various  intervals  during 
storage  and  loss  due  to  decay  for  the  period  of  164  days, 


THE  POTATO  CROPS 


325 


Table    XLVI. — Relation    of   Temperature  during  Storage  to  the  Keeping 
Quality  of  Sweet  Potatoes 

(Shrinkage  and  decay  averages  of  three  standard  varieties  in  storage-house  tests  during  two  seasons) 


Tem- 
pera- 
ture, 
deg.  F. 

Weight* 

Loss  in 

Loss  in  weight  at  end  of — 

Loss  due  to 

decay 

164  days 

Variety 

at 

harvest 

time, 

lb. 

during 

curing, 

per 

cent 

51 
days, 
per 
cent 

82 
days, 
per 
cent 

111 
days, 
per 
cent 

141 

days, 
per 
cent 

164  days 

Lb. 

Per 

cent 

Lb. 

Per 

cent 

Big  Stem  Jersey 

Nancy  Hall 

50  to  55 
50  to  55 
50  to  55 

142.56 
140.00 
153.09 

6.59 
7.14 
7.83 

7..3 
7.74 
8.50 
8.71 

8.02 
8.46 
9.12 

9.42 
9.69 
10.49 

10.88 
11.03 
12.00 

12.09 
12.12 
13.21 

19.31 
18.44 
22.50 

13.54    1.81 
13.10    0.84 
14.69    0.59 

1.27 
0.60 

Southern  Queen 

0.38 

Total  for  three  vari- 

435.67 

144.16 
144.47 
151.72 

60.25 

22.50 
22.31 
22.44 

13.83 
15.61 
15.45 
14.79 

3.25 

0.72 
0.56 

Average     for     three 

varieties 

Big  Stem  Jersey 

Nancy  Hall 

55  to  60 
55  to  60 
55  to  60 

8.55 
9.02 
9.73 
9.68 

1 
9.88  11.33 
10.82  12.59 
11.12  12.74 
11.53  12.09 

12.49 
14.24 
14.30 
14.03 

0.75 
1.17 
0.49 

Southern  Queen 

Total  for  three  vari- 
eties 

0.37 

440.34 

139.94 
143.16 
150.53 

, 

67.25 

23.62 
24.12 
20.34 

15.27 
16.85 
16.85 
13.51 

2.97 

3.31 
0.78 

Average     for     three 

varieties 

Big  Stem  Jersey 

Nancy  Hall 

60  to  65 
60  to  65 
60  to  65 

8.32 
7.98 
9.17 
6.73 

9.48 
9.60 
11.05 
8.24 

11.16  12.47 
12.10!l3.75 
13.18  14.69 

14.18 
15.46 
15.89 
12.81 

0.67 
2.36 
0.54 

Southern  Queen 

10.40 

11.73 

Total  for  three  vari- 

433.62 

68.09  

4.09 

Average     for     three 
varieties 

7.93 

9.61 

11.87 

13.22 

14.68 

35.70 

0.96 

*  Weight  means  the  average  weight  of  potatoes  stored  per  year  (total  weight  divided  by  2). 

Examination  of  the  above  table  will  show  that  the  average  percentage 
of  shrinkage  for  the  three  varieties  increased  with  a  rise  in  temperature. 
This  was  true  for  every  period  after  curing.  It  will  also  be  noticed 
that  over  half  of  the  shrinkage  occurred  during  the  curing  period.  After 
the  curing  period  the  shrinkage  continues,  but  the  rate  is  rather  slow, 
averaging  less  than  1)^  per  cent  a  month  under  the  three  sets  of  tem- 
peratures. The  average  total  shrinkage,  even  at  the  highest  temperature 
was  not  excessive  for  such  a  long  period  and  with  potatoes  stored  in  crates. 
The  average  storage  period  is  not  over  3  or  3)^  months.  At  the  end  of 
111  days  the  average  shrinkage  in  these  experiments  was  11.33,  12.47 
and  13.22  per  cent.  A  shrinkage  of  at  least  10  per  cent  for  a  storage 
period  of  5  months  is  necessary  and  half  of  this  should  occur  during  the 
curing  period.  The  difference  in  percentage  of  decay  is  not  significant 
as  the  potatoes  in  the  three  storage  rooms  kept  in  almost  perfect  condition. 

When  the  temperature  in  the  storage  house  goes  below  48  degrees  F. 
a  fire  should  be  started,  or  the  house  opened  during  the  middle  of  the  day 


326  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

when  the  temperature  on  the  outside  is  higher  than  on  the  inside  and  the 
humidity  of  the  outside  air  is  not  too  high.  When  the  temperature 
goes  above  60  degrees  F.,  it  is  desirable  to  open  the  house  in  the  cool  of 
the  day  if  the  weather  conditions  are  favorable. 

Comparison  of  Bins  and  Crates.— It  is  often  asserted  that  crates, 
baskets  and  other  small  containers  are  better  than  bins,  because  when 
decay  sets  in  it  is  likely  to  be  confined  to  the  container,  but  in  bins  the 
decay  maj^  spread  throughout  the  bulk  of  the  potatoes.  The  extra 
handhng  required  when  bin  storage  is  used  increases  the  chances  for 
bruising  the  potatoes.  In  ordinary  handling  there  is  considerable 
bruising  in  dumping  the  potatoes  into  the  bins. 

Experiments  conducted  for  2  years  by  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agri- 
culture (162)  show  that  shrinkage  was  a  little  greater  in  crates  than  in 
bins,  but  decay  was  slightly  greater  in  the  latter.  The  average  shrinkage 
for  three  standard  varieties  was  12.88  per  cent  in  bins  and  14.02  per 
cent  in  crates,  while  the  decay  was  1  and  0.57  per  cent  respectively. 
The  conditions  were  so  near  ideal  that  the  loss  was  practically  nothing. 
Under  less  favorable  conditions  the  difference  in  percentage  of  decay 
would  probably  have  been  greater. 

Sorting  Versus  Not  Sorting. — It  has  been  quite  generally  beheved 
that  when  sweet  potatoes  begin  to  decay  in  storage  they  should  be  sorted 
to  pick  out  the  diseased  ones.  Experiments  reported  by  Thompson  and 
Beattie  (162)  indicate  that  it  is  inadvisable  to  disturb  the  potatoes 
even  to  pick  out  those  that  are  decaying.  In  seven  tests,  including 
three  varieties,  covering  4  years  the  average  loss  by  decay  was  2.63  per 
cent  for  those  sorted  and  1.21  per  cent  for  those  not  sorted.  In  six  lots 
out  of  the  seven  the  sorted  potatoes  had  the  larger  percentage  of  decay. 
The  sorting  was  carefully  done  about  once  a  month  during  the  storage 
period  which  averaged  134  days.  Under  less  careful  handling  there  would 
undoubtedly  have  been  more  decay  in  both  sorted  and  unsorted  lots, 
but  especially  in  the  former.  The  probable  explanation  of  the  greater 
amount  of  decay  in  the  sorted  lots  is  that  sHght  bruising  resulted  from 
handling  and  that  the  sorting  increases  the  chance  of  spreading  disease 
from  decayed  to  sound  potatoes.  One  decayed  potato  left  undisturbed 
might  be  in  contact  with  several  sound  ones,  all  of  which  would  eventually 
become  diseased,  but  it  would  require  considerable  time  for  all  of  them  to 
decay  completely.  When  sorted  each  of  the  potatoes,  which  had  become 
infected  with  disease,  might  be  placed  in  contact  with  several  uninfected 
ones,  thereby  spreading  the  disease  to  them. 

Since  sorting  apparently  increases  disease  injury  and  requires  con- 
siderable labor,  it  seems  inadvisable  to  sort  them  until  they  are  to  be 
placed  on  the  market.  When  decay  is  serious  the  potatoes  should  be 
sorted  and  disposed  of  immediately. 


THE  POTATO  CROPS 


327 


Changes  during  Storage, — Attention  has  been  called  to  the  loss 
in  weight  of  sweet  potatoes  in  storage.  Tables  XLV  and  XLVI  show  the 
percentage  loss  in  weight  at  various  times  during  storage.  It  has  been 
assumed  that  the  decrease  in  weight  is  accounted  for  by  the  loss  of  mois- 
ture, but  this  does  not  account  for  all  of  it.  The  percentage  of  water  in 
sweet  potatoes  does  not  vary  to  any  great  extent  during  storage,  although 
it  is  well  known  that  moisture  is  lost. 

Other  changes  which  take  place  in  the  sweet  potato  during  storage 
are  transformations  of  carbohydrates,  notably  a  decrease  in  starch  and 
an  increase  of  sugar.  Harrington  (60)  found  that  there  was  an  increase  in 
the  total  amount  of  sugar  up  to  March  6,  beyond  which  his  experiments 
were  not  continued.  Shiver  (135)  found  that  during  the  time  of  his 
experiments  (up  to  April  17)  there  was  a  gradual  decrease  of  starch 

Table    XLVII. — Carbohydrate    Transformations  in   Sweet  Potatoes  during 

Storage 

(Adapted  from  Hasselbring  and  Hawkins) 
Big  Stem  Jerseys 


Date 

Water, 
per  cent 

Starch, 
per  cent 

Cane 

sugar, 

per  cent 

Reducing 
sugar  as 
glucose, 
per  cent 

Total 
sugar  as 
glucose, 
per  cent 

Total 
carbo- 
hydrates 
as  glucose, 
per  cent 

Oct   20              

73.50 
72.99 
71.89 
72.06 
72.18 
71.97 
73.02 
72.49 
72.87 
72.45 

19.07 
16.94 
16.42 
16.02 
14.11 
13.09 
13.44 
14.47 
14.20 
14.62 

1.90 
3.51 
3.94 
4.39 
6.06 
6.96 
6.40 
5.61 
6.03 
5.85 

0.90 
1.32 
1.40 
1.28 
1.67 
1.44 
1.10 
0.87 
0.90 
0.87 

2.90 
5.02 
5.55 
5.90 
8.04 
8.76 
7.84 
6.77 
7.24 
7.02 

24  09 

Nov.  8 

Dec.  6 

23.85 
23.79 

Jan.  4 

23.70 

Feb   1 

23  71 

Mar.  1     

23.31 

Mar.  20 

22.77 

Mar.  26 

22.85 

Apr   16 

23  02 

June  1        

23  27 

Southern  Queen 


Oct.  23.. 
Nov.  10. 
Dec.  7.. 
Jan.  11.. 
Feb.  3.. 
Feb.  28. 
Apr.  8 .  . 


71.69 

22.09 

1.19 

0.39 

1.64 

68.41 

19.87 

2.97 

0.77 

3.89 

67.69 

19.30 

3.50 

0.72 

4.41 

67.51 

19.75 

3.53 

0.75 

4.46 

68.02 

19.22 

3.95 

0.60 

4.75 

68.00 

18.99 

4.05 

0.53 

4.80 

66.71 

20.35 

2.93 

0.52 

3.61 

69.21 

19.78 

3.39 

0.51 

4.07 

68.15 

20.15 

2.80 

0.55 

3.50 

26.18 
25.96 
25.85 
26.41 
26.11 
25.90 
26.22 
26.05 
25.89 


328  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

and  an  increase  of  cane  sugar,  while  the  invert  sugar  showed  but  shght 
fluctuations.  Hasselbring  and  Hawkins  (71)  show  the  changes  in  two 
varieties,  Big  Stem  Jersey  and  Southern  Queen,  from  harvest  October  20, 
1911  to  June  1,  1912.  These  potatoes  were  held  at  temperatures  ranging 
from  11.7  to  21  degrees  C.  after  the  curing  period,  but  mainly  between 
11.7  to  16.7  degrees  C.  Table  XLVII  shows  the  percentage  of  water, 
starch,  cane  sugar,  reducing  sugar  as  glucose,  total  sugar  as  glucose 
and  total  carbohydrates  as  glucose.  The  percentages  of  carbohydrates 
were  all  referred  to  the  original  moisture  content  of  the  potatoes. 

Hasselbring  and  Hawkins  (71)  comment  as  follows  on  the  results  of 
these  experiments: 

The  data  .  .  .  show  that  under  the  condition  of  this  experiment  the 
moisture  content  of  the  roots  remain  fairly  constant.  There  is  a  slight  decrease 
in  the  moisture  content,  more  marked  in  the  Southern  Queen  than  in  the  Big 
Stem  variety,  during  the  curing  process,  but  on  the  whole  there  is  comparatively 
little  change  in  the  percentage  of  moisture.  The  loss  of  moisture  is  probably 
compensated  in  part  by  the  water  formed  in  respiration  while  the  loss  in  substance 
by  respiration  would  increase  the  relative  moisture  content,  thus  tending  to 
conceal  the  actual  water  loss. 

Similar  experiments  with  sweet  potatoes  stored  at  low  temperatures 
(approximately  4  degrees  C.)  show  that  the  disappearance  of  starch  and 
the  accumulation  of  sugar  take  place  more  rapidly  and  proceed  to  a 
greater  extent  than  at  high  temperatures.  The  cold  storage  experiments 
were  of  short  duration  since  the  potatoes  rotted  after  having  been  kept 
at  low  temperatures  for  about  6  weeks. 

Hasselbring  and  Hawkins  (71)  give  the  following  brief  summary  of 
results  of  their  studies  of  the  physiological  changes  in  sweet  potatoes 
during  storage : 

During  its  growth  the  sweet-potato  root  is  characterized  by  a  very  low  sugar 
content.  The  reserve  materials  from  the  vines  are  almost  wholly  deposited  as 
starch. 

Immediately  after  the  roots  are  harvested  there  occurs  a  rapid  transforma- 
tion of  starch  into  cane  sugar  and  reducing  sugars.  This  initial  transforma- 
tion seems  to  be  due  to  internal  causes  and  is  largely  independent  of  external 
conditions.  Even  at  a  temperature  of  30  degrees  C.  both  cane  sugar  and  reduc- 
ing sugars  accumulate  during  this  initial  period  in  excess  of  the  quantity  used 
in  respiration,  while  during  subsequent  periods  the  quantity  of  reducing  sugar 
diminishes  at  that  temperature  as  a  result  of  respiration.  These  initial  changes 
seem  to  be  associated  with  the  cessation  of  the  flow  of  materials  from  the  vines. 

In  sweet  potatoes  stored  at  a  temperature  of  11.7  to  16.7  degrees  C,  the 
moisture  content  remains  fairly  constant.  There  is  a  gradual  disappearance  of 
starch  during  the  first  of  the  season  (October  to  March)  and  probably  a  re-forma- 
tion of  starch  accompanied  by  a  disappearance  of  cane  sugar  during  the  latter 
part  of  the  season  (March  to  June).     The  changes  in  reducing  sugar  are  less 


THE  POTATO  CROPS  329 

marked  than  those  in  cane  sugar.  The  changes  in  starch  and  cane  sugar  appear 
in  a  general  way  to  be  correlated  with  the  seasonal  changes  in  the  temperature. 
In  sweet  potatoes  kept  in  cold  storage  (4  degrees  C),  there  is  a  rapid  dis- 
appearance of  the  starch  and  an  accompanying  increase  in  cane  sugar.  These 
changes  do  not  attain  a  state  of  equilibrium  at  that  temperature,  as  the  sweet 
potatoes  invariably  rot  by  the  action  of  fungi  before  the  changes  have  reached 
their  maximum.  At  both  high  and  low  temperatures  cane  sugar  is  the  chief 
product  formed  by  the  conversion  of  starch  in  the  sweet  potato.  The  quantity 
of  invert  sugar  in  the  root  at  any  time  is  comparatively  small. 

The  changes  in  sweet  potatoes  during  storage,  especially  the  decrease 
in  starch  and  the  increase  in  sugar,  account  for  the  difference  in  taste 
between  freshly  dug  potatoes  and  those  of  the  same  variety  which  have 
been  stored  for  a  while.  Freshly  dug  sweet  potatoes  are  dry  when  cooked, 
while  stored  potatoes  are  more  moist.  The  so-called  dry-fleshed  varie- 
ties have  a  lower  sugar  content  than  the  moist-fleshed  varieties.  Analy- 
ses by  Harrington  (60)  March  6,  1894  of  a  number  of  varieties  show  a 
variation  of  total  sugar  from  7.55  per  cent  in  the  Delaware  (probably  a 
Jersey)  to  19.71  per  cent  in  the  Early  Bunch  Yam  a  moist-fieshed  variety. 
Nansemond  (Yellow  Jersey)  a  dry-fleshed  potato  contained  8  per  cent 
total  sugar.  All  of  the  so-called  moist-fleshed  varieties  are  high  in  sugar. 
The  moisture  content  of  the  two  types  is  practically  the  same. 

Storage  Houses. — The  following  description  of  the  method  of  con- 
struction of  the  type  of  house  recommended  by  the  U.  S.  Department  of 
Agriculture  was  prepared  by  the  author  and  published  in  Farmers'  Bull. 
970: 

Sweet-potato  storage  houses  may  be  built  of  wood,  brick,  hollow  tile,  cement, 
or  stone.  Wooden  houses  are  preferable,  because  they  are  cheaper  and  easier 
to  keep  dry  than  the  other  types.  It  is  difficult  to  keep  moisture  from  collect- 
ing on  the  walls  of  a  cement,  stone,  or  brick  house.  Where  such  houses  are  built 
for  sweet-potato  storage  they  should  be  lined  with  lumber,  so  as  to  keep  the 
air  in  the  house  from  coming  in  contact  with  masonry  walls.  It  is  best  to  build 
sweet-potato  storage  houses  on  foundations  that  allow  a  circulation  of  air  under 
them.  The  "dugout,"  or  house  built  partly  under  ground,  is  not  satisfactory 
for  storing  sweet  potatoes  in  the  South,  because  it  is  practically  impossible  to 
keep  this  type  of  house  dr}^,  and  moisture  in  the  storage  house  will  cause  the 
crop  to  rot. 

The  foundation  of  the  storage  house  may  be  in  the  form  of  pillars  or  solid 
walls  and  should  be  of  such  a  height  that  the  floor  is  about  on  the  level  of  the 
bottom  of  the  wagon  bed,  while  the  footings  should  be  carried  below  the  frost 
line  or  to  solid  ground.  Girders  6  by  10  or  8  by  8  inches  in  size  are  usually 
placed  on  the  pillars. 

Where  cement,  brick,  or  stone  foundation  walls  are  built,  they  should  extend 
18  to  20  inches  above  the  ground  level;  and  plates  2  to  3  inches  thick  and  8  to 
10  inches  wide  should  be  placed  on  the  wall.  In  using  walls  for  the  foundation 
it  is  necessary  to  provide  means  for  ventilation  under  the  house.     This  can  be 


330 


VEGETABLE  CROPS 


done  by  placing  small  windows  in  the  foundation  every  10  to  12  feet.  Even 
where  solid  outside  foundation  walls  are  used  it  is  advisable  to  use  pillars  for  the 
center  supports.     The  rows  of  pillars  should  be  not  farther  apart  than  8  to  10  feet. 

The  walls,  floor,  ceiling  and  roof  should  be  well-insulated  so  that 
changes  in  temperature  of  the  outside  air  will  not  be  readily  felt  on  the 
inside  of  the  house.  In  most  storage  sections  the  walls  should  have  at 
least  two  layers  of  boards  on  the  outside  of  the  studs  and  two  on  the 


DUIlDlfIC  PAP£/e. 
'TL  OORIflG. 


DROP'^ID/i 
DWLDWO  PaP£' 


BuiLDrNC  Pap£R 


27. — Details  of   construction   of   a   sweet-potato   storage   house. 
Department  of  Agriculture). 


{Courtesy,    U.    S. 


inside  with  building  paper  between  the  layers.  The  space  between  the 
walls  should  be  left  open,  because  sawdust,  shavings  and  other  materials 
used  to  keep  out  cold  or  heat,  will  absorb  moisture,  and  when  once  wet 
will  never  dry  out.  The  floors  and  ceiling  should  have  at  least  two  layers 
of  boards  with  building  paper  between,  and  in  the  colder  regions  more 
insulation  is  desirable.  Figure  27  shows  the  details  of  construction  rec- 
ommended by  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture  (160)  for  sweet-potato 
storage  houses  in  the  South. 

Thorough  ventilation  is  necessary  in  a  storage  house.     This  is  pro- 
vided by  means  of  doors,  windows,  and  ventilators  through  the  floor 


THE  POTATO  CROPS 


331 


and  through  the  roof  as  shown  in  Figs.  28  and  29.     The  openings  in 
the  floor  around  the  stove  prevent  overheating  the  potatoes  near  the 


47 


rf 


C//IMME/  0/CR- 


□I  ^li 


"-^^'X^'K 


fn 


///  f/iCH  3/1 


\^- 


3=i: 


Fig.  28. — Floor  plan  of  a  20  by  40  foot  sweet-potato  storage  house.     {Courtesy,    U.  S. 
Department  of  Agriculture). 

stove.  The  windows  and  doors  must  be  made  so  as  to  close  tightly  and 
the  ventilators  should  be  made  so  they  can  be  closed  quickly  and  tightly 
whenever  necessary.     Openings  in  the  floor  as  shown  in  Fig.  28  are  satis- 


C»//iNEY. 


Fig.  29. — Cross  section  of  a  20  by  40  foot  sweet-potato  storage  house.     Note  space  under 
bin  and  between  bin  and  walls  of  house.     (Courtesy,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture) . 

factory  for  bottom  ventilation  and  box  ventilators  through  the  roof  as 
illustrated  in  Fig.  29  serve  to  carry  off  the  warm,  moisture-laden  air  as  it 
rises. 


332  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

The  arrangement  of  the  interior  of  the  house  depends  upon  the 
methods  of  storage  used.  If  the  potatoes  are  kept  in  boxes,  baskets, 
hampers  or  crates  no  interior  construction  is  necessary,  but  it  is  desirable 
to  set  the  packages  on  false,  slat  floors,  raised  2  to  4  inches  above  the  floor 
of  the  house.  When  bins  are  employed  the  interior  of  the  storage  should 
be  arranged  for  convenience  in  handling  the  potatoes,  and  in  taking  care 
of  heating  and  ventilation.     The  bins  are  often  made  as  follows : 

For  the  corner  and  middle  supports,  2-  by  4-inch  scantlings  are  set  up,  the 
lower  end  nailed  to  the  floor  and  the  upper  to  tlie  crosspieces  used  for  tying  the 
sides  together.  Over  the  supports,  1-  by  4-inch  boards  are  nailed,  leaving  a 
1-inch  space  between  them.  In  making  the  slat  floors,  2-  by  4-inch  scantlings 
are  cut  to  go  across  the  bin  and  placed  on  edge,  one  near  each  end  and  one  in 
the  center.  To  these  1-  by  4-  or  1-  by  6-inch  boards  are  tacked,  leaving  a  1-inch 
space  between  them.  If  left  loose,  the  slat  floor  racks  can  be  taken  out  when 
the  house  is  cleaned  and  disinfected  during  the  summer.  The  size  of  the  bins 
will  depend  somewhat  on  the  arrangement  and  size  of  the  house,  but  it  is  not 
advisable  to  make  them  more  than  5  feet  wide,  6  to  8  feet  deep,  and  10  to  12 
feet  long.  There  should  be  a  6-  to  12-inch  space  between  the  walls  and  the 
bins  to  allow  a  circulation  of  air.  It  is  necessary  to  slat  up  both  sides  of  the 
scantlings  between  the  bins,  in  order  to  leave  an  air  space  between  the  potatoes 
in  the  different  bins.  The  construction  here  described  allows  a  4-inch  space 
between  the  bins,  a  4-inch  space  under  the  bins  and  6  inches  between  the  bins 
and  outside  walls.     (See  Figs.  27  and  29.) 

Heating  the  Storage  House.^ — The  type  of  heating  apparatus  used 
depends  to  a  considerable  extent  upon  the  size  of  the  house.  For  a 
small  house  a  small  sheet-iron,  wood-burning  stove  or  a  small  coal  stove 
may  be  used.  Oil  stoves  are  used  for  small  houses  in  some  sections  of  the 
South,  but  these  are  not  entirely  satisfactory.  For  large  houses,  hot- 
water  or  steam  heat  is  preferable  to  the  use  of  stoves  since  the  heat  can 
be  more  evenly  distributed  than  with  stoves,  or  even  with  hot-air  furnaces. 
Some  houses  are  heated  by  hot-air  furnaces  with  the  air  pipes  placed  under 
the  bins.  No  experimental  comparison  of  the  different  methods  of 
heating  has  been  made.  In  a  small  house  where  only  one  stove  is  used  it 
is  usually  placed  near  the  center  but  if  cold  winds  strike  one  end  the  stove 
should  be  in  that  end.  Some  storage  houses  have  a  small  stove  in  each 
end,  and  this  is  a  good  arrangement.  In  large  houses  it  is  desirable  to 
put  in  partitions  to  make  separate  rooms.  Each  room  should  have  a 
stove  or  other  independent  heating  unit  so  that  any  part  of  the  house  can 
be  heated  without  heating  the  other  parts. 

Storage  Pits. — A  large  part  of  the  sweet  potato  crop,  grown  in  the 
South,  is  stored  in  out-door  pits  or  banks  although  the  percentage  so 
stored  is  decreasing  each  year.  The  average  loss  by  decay  by  this  method 
of  storage  is  at  least  30  per  cent,  but  this  can  be  materially  reduced 
by  using  care  in  handling  the  potatoes  and  in  constructing  the  pit  or 


THE  POTATO  CROPS  333 

bank.  Experiments  to  compare  house  and  pit  storage,  were  conducted  by 
the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture  (162)  for  3  years  in  the  South. 
Records  covering  ten  tests  secured  on  984,000  bushels  of  sweet  potatoes 
stored  in  houses  showed  only  1.20  per  cent  loss  due  to  decay,  while  the 
decay  averaged  14.33  per  cent  in  the  same  number  of  tests  on  204,300 
bushels  stored  in  pits.  In  these  experiments  the  potatoes  were  handled 
carefully  and  the  pits  were  much  better  than  the  average.  In  addition 
to  the  loss  by  decay  in  pits  and  banks  the  quality  of  the  potatoes  is  very 
inferior,  due  to  lack  of  proper  curing,  and  they  decay  rapidly  when 
removed.  It  is  very  inconvenient  to  get  the  potatoes  out  of  a  pit  or 
bank  when  needed,  especially  during  cold,  or  rainy  weather. 


CHAPTER  XXIV 

BEANS  AND  PEAS 

Broad  Bean  Tepary  Bean 

Kidney  Bean  Soybean 

Scarlet  Runner  or  Multiflora  Bean  Cowpea 

Lima  Bean  Peas 

Beans  and  peas  are  closely  related  botanically,  but  their  cultural 
requirements  have  few  points  in  common.  The  beans,  grown  in  America, 
are  tender,  warm-season  plants,  while  the  pea  is  a  hardy,  cool-season  plant. 
Both  are  legumes  and  are  capable  of  utilizing  atmospheric  nitrogen  by 
the  aid  of  bacteria  found  in  the  nodules  on  the  roots  of  the  plants.  They 
are  considered  good  crops  to  grow  in  the  rotation. 

BEANS 

The  term  "bean"  as  used  in  the  United  States  includes  the  follow- 
ing species  representing  six  genera:  (1)  Broad  beans  or  Windsor  bean 
{Vicia  faba),  (2)  common  garden  bean  or  kidney  bean  (Phaseolus  vul- 
garis), (3)  scarlet  runner  or  multiflora  bean  (P.  multiflorus)  also  called  P. 
coccineus,  (4)  sieva  and  lima  bean  (P.  lunatus),  (5)  tepary  (P.  acuti- 
folius  var.  latifolius),  (6)  soybean  {Glycine  hispida  or  Soja  Max,  (7) 
cowpea  or  China  bean  {Vigna  sinensis),  (8)  velvet  bean  {Stizolobium 
spp.),  (9)  hyacinth  bean  {Dolichos  lablah)  and  (10)  several  species  of  oriental 
beans,  including  adsuki,  urd,  mung,  moth  and  rice  beans  belonging  to 
the  genus  Phaseolus. 

Soybeans,  cowpeas  and  velvet  beans  are  grown  mainly  as  forage  and 
as  soil-improving  crops,  although  the  first  two  are  used  as  human  food. 
Hyacinth  bean  is  grown  mainly  as  an  ornamental  climber  in  the 
United  States.  The  species  of  oriental  beans  are  little  known  in  this 
country,  but  they  are  likely  to  attract  attention. 

Irish  (75)  gives  the  following  key  to  the  principal  species  of  Phaseolus: 

Seed  less  than  ^^  inch  long,  or  if  longer  much  flattened  and  usually 
subreniform. 

Seed  with  conspicuous  rays  from  the  hilum  to  the  dorsal  suture, 
lunate  or  subreniform,  much  flattened  except  in  one  variety. 

Flowers  small,  greenish  white  P.  lunatus. 

334 


BEANS  AND  PEAS  335 

Seed  with  inconspicuous  or  no  rays,  rarely  lunate.  Flowers  of 
medium  size,  white  or  purplish-violet.     P.  vulgaris. 

Seed  more  than  %  inch  long,  more  or  less  tumid,  less  than  twice 
as  long  as  broad,  not  usually  reniform.     P.  multiflorus. 

BROAD  BEAN 

The  broad  bean  is  a  hardy  plant,  native  of  Europe  and  Asia.  It  is 
one  of  the  most  ancient  of  the  cultivated  esculents,  having  been  grown  by 
the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans,  Hebrews  and  Egyptians.  It  is  said  to 
have  been  introduced  into  China  about  2,822  B.  C.  This  bean  is  seldom 
grown  in  America  since  the  summers  are  too  hot  and  the  winters  of  the 
North  are  so  cold  that  it  cannot  be  planted  in  the  autumn  and  carried 
over.  In  some  sections  of  the  South  and  of  the  Pacific  coast  the  seed 
may  be  planted  in  the  autumn  or  during  the  winter  for  a  spring  crop, 
but  other  types  of  beans  are  so  easily  grown  that  the  extra  effort  necessary 
to  produce  the  broad  bean  does  not  seem  to  be  justified.  In  southern 
Europe  the  seed  is  often  planted  in  the  fall  and  the  young  plants  are  pro- 
tected during  the  winter.  Broad  beans  are  used  either  as  green  or  dry 
beans,  and  as  feed  for  horses. 

The  broad  bean  is  grown  to  some  extent  in  California,  where  it  is 
planted  in  February  and  March  in  the  warmer  sections  and  later  in  the 
cooler  regions,  near  San  Francisco.  Hendry  (72)  states  that  30  to  40 
per  cent  is  used  as  stock  feed  within  the  State,  the  remainder  being  shipped 
to  New  York  and  other  eastern  cities  where  it  is  used  principally  by  the 
poorer  class  of  Itahan  and  Jewish  peoples. 

It  has  fallen  into  comparative  disrepute  in  California  of  late  because  of  the 
stringency  of  the  Federal  Foods  and  Drugs  Act,  which  classes  weevil-infested 
Horse  Beans  as  adulterated  food,  and  prohibits  their  shipment  in  interstate  com- 
merce for  use  as  human  food.  The  numerous  confiscations  in  transit  under  this 
regulation  have  occasioned  losses  to  shippers,  kept  the  price  down,  and  retarded 
the  expansion  of  the  acreage. 

COMMON  OR  KIDNEY  BEAN 

The  kidney  bean  {P.  vulgaris)  is  the  most  important  species  of  bean 
grown  in  the  United  States  and  in  common  usage  the  term  "bean" 
applies  to  types  and  varieties  belonging  to  this  species.  This  crop 
is  grown  by  a  large  percentage  of  home  gardeners,  and,  as  a  market 
crop,  it  is  produced  for  market  as  snap  beans,  green  shell  beans,  and 
dry  beans. 

Statistics  of  Production. — The  census  report  gives  the  acreage  of 
green  beans  grown  for  sale  in  1919  as  71,970  acres  and  the  value  $8,031- 
449.     The  principal   producing  states  were   Florida  with   8,522   acres, 


336 


EGE TABLE  CROPS 


New  York  6,628,  New  Jersey  6,091,  Maryland  5,187,  Tennessee  4,322, 
California  4,126,  Kentucky  3,358,  Virginia  3,024,  Wisconsin  2,548, 
Pennsylvania  2,497,  West  Virginia  2,364,  Michigan  2,073  and  Ohio 
2,068  acres.  Seven  other  states  produced  between  1,000  and  2,000 
acres  each.  In  several  of  the  northern  states  a  large  part  of  the  acreage 
of  beans  is  grown  for  canning,  while  in  the  southern  states  the  crop  is 
grown  largely  for  shipping  to  northern  markets  during  the  winter  and 
spring. 

The  dry  bean  industry  is  much  more  important  than  the  green  bean 
industr3\  The  acreage,  production  and  value  of  dry  beans,  including 
varieties  of  Lima,  Tepary  and  Pinto  beans,  produced  in  the  six  most 
important  states  for  the  years  1918,  1919  and  1920  as  given  in  the 
Monthly  Crop  Reporter  (Dec,  1920)  were  as  follows: 


Year 


Acres 


1918 
1919 
1920 


1,174,000 

1,002,000 

849,000 


Production  bu. 


17.397,000 

11,935,000 

9,075,000 


Value 


$91,863,000 
51,051,000 
27,114,000 


During  the  War  and  immediately  after  the  crop  of  beans  was 
abnormally  large  and  the  price  was  abnormally  high. 

The  most  important  dry  bean  states  are  California,  Michigan,  New 
York,  Colorado,  New  Mexico,  and  Arizona,  the  last  two  growing  mainly 
the  types  known  as  Tepary  beans  and  Pinto  beans. 

History  and  Taxonomy. — -The  common  bean  is  probably  a  native  of 
South  America  and  is  undoubtedly  of  ancient  origin.  Many  varieties 
were  grown  by  the  American  Indians  before  they  became  generally 
cultivated  in  Europe. 

It  belongs  to  the  family  Legumnosae  and  is  therefore  closely  related  to 
the  pea,  clovers,  and  many  other  plants  of  great  economic  importance. 
Irish  (75)  gives  the  following  description  of  the  plant. 

Plant  sub-glabrous,  dwarf  or  climbing  6  feet  or  uiuro.  Leaflets  ovate-acumi- 
nate often  oblique.  Flowers  in  racemes  shorter  than  the  leaves,  white  or  pur- 
plish-violet, mediumsize.  Pods  flattened  to  sub-cylindrical,  straight  or  curved, 
more  or  less  turgid.     Seed  variable  in  size,  shape  and  color. 


Soil  Preferences. — Beans  are  grown  on  practically  all  types  of  soils 
from  light  sandy  loams  to  heavy  clays.  In  California  peat  soils  are  used 
for  growing  dry  beans  with  very  satisfactory  results.     For  an  early  crop 


BEANS  AND  PEAS  337 

of  snap  beans  a  sandy  loam  is  preferred,  but  heavier,  more  retentive  soils 
of  a  loamy  nature  are  desired  for  the  growing  of  string  beans  during  mid- 
season,  and  for  dry  beans.  While  a  fairly  rich  soil  is  desirable  beans  will 
produce  some  crop  on  relatively  poor  soils.  A  very  rich  soil  is  not  desir- 
able because  on  such  a  soil  too  much  vine  growth  is  produced.  Very 
heavy  soils  are  not  satisfactory  since  excess  water  does  not  drain  away 
readily. 

Fertilizers  and  Manures.— Authorities  agree  that  the  mineral 
elements,  phosphorus  and  potash  are  of  greatest  importance.  This  is 
undoubtedly  true  with  field  beans  and  with  late  maturing  varieties  of 
garden  beans,  but  for  quick  maturing  varieties,  especially  when  planted 
early  in  the  season  some  readily  available  nitrogen  is  needed.  On  sandy 
loam  soils  of  low  productivity  an  application  of  800  pounds  of  a  5-10-5 
mixture  is  none  too  heavy  for  a  crop  of  early  snap  beans.  Heavier  appli- 
cations are  used  by  many  truck  growers  in  the  South  and  by  market 
gardeners  in  the  North. 

Green  beans  for  the  cannery  are  usually  grown  in  rotation  with 
general  farm  crops  on  fairly  rich  land  and  are  given  only  a  light  appli- 
cation of  fertilizer.  Some  growers  use  nothing  but  acid  phosphate  at  the 
rate  of  300  to  400  pounds  to  the  acre,  while  others  use  300  to  600  pounds 
of  a  complete  mixture.  Where  manure  is  used  in  the  rotation  phosphorus 
only  is  needed. 

Dry  beans  are  also  commonly  grown  in  rotation  with  general  farm 
crops  and  only  light  applications  of  fertihzer  are  used.  Acid  phos- 
phate at  the  rate  of  about  300  pounds  to  the  acre  is  often  used.  Light 
applications  of  complete  mixtures,  containing  2  to  3  per  cent  nitrogen, 
8  per  cent  phosphoric  acid  and  4  to  8  per  cent  potash,  are  often  used. 
Applications  larger  than  300  pounds  to  the  acre  have  seldom  proved 
profitable. 

Fertilizers  are  usually  applied  broadcast  at  the  time  of  preparing 
the  soil. 

Manure  may  be  used  in  light  applications,  but  it  is  better  to 
apply  it  to  other  crops.  Heavj^  applications  of  manure  should  never 
be  used  for  beans  on  account  of  the  danger  of  making  too  large 
vine  growth. 

Planting. — Common  beans  are  tender  to  frost  and  are  usually  planted 
after  the  danger  of  frost  is  over.  Home  gardeners  and  persons  growing 
string  or  snap  beans  for  the  early  market  often  take  chances  on  frost  and 
make  a  small  planting  before  danger  of  frost  is  over.  The  main  crop  of 
green  beans,  especially  those  grown  for  the  cannery,  and  all  types  grown 
for  dry  beans  are  planted  after  danger  of  frost  is  over  and  the  soil  has 
become  warm.  Where  earliness  is  not  an  important  factor  it  is  not  advis- 
able to  plant  beans  until  the  soil  is  warm  for  in  a  cold  soil  germination 
is  likely  to  be  poor. 


338  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

Bean  seed  is  planted  by  hand  in  most  home  gardens,  but  commercial 
plantings  arc  usually  made  with  a  machine.  The  hand  seed  drill  is  used 
where  relatively  small  areas  are  planted.  For  large  plantings  two-row 
corn  planters,  with  special  bean  plates  are  used  to  a  considerable  extent  and 
the  ordinary  wheat  drill  is  also  used.  When  the  ordinary  wheat  drill  is 
used  some  of  the  openings  are  plugged  up.  The  11-row.  grain  drill, 
with  a  space  of  7  inches  between  each  drill  tube  can  be  adjusted  for  plant- 
ing in  rows  28  inches  apart  by  stopping  up  all  of  the  feed  cups  except  the 
second,  sixth  and  tenth. 

The  spacing  of  the  rows  and  the  seeds  in  the  row  should  be  determined 
by  the  type  or  variety,  the  richness  of  the  soil  and  the  amount  of  moisture. 
Large  growing  plants  should  be  given  more  space  than  small  plants  and  on 
rich  soil  more  space  is  needed  than  on  poor  soil,  provided  the  rainfall  is 
sufficient,  or  irrigation  is  practiced.  In  dry-farming  more  space  is  given 
than  under  irrigation  or  in  humid  regions.  Most  bush  beans  are  now 
planted  in  drills  rather  than  in  checks,  although  the  latter  method  is 
followed  to  some  extent,  especially  in  sections  of  the  Northwest.  In  the 
hill  method  6  to  8  seeds  are  planted  in  each  hill  spaced  30  to  36 
inches  apart  each  way  for  dry  beans.  This  practice  is  not  recommended 
except  where  the  land  is  very  weedy.  Experiments  by  Corbett  (29) ,  1895, 
comparing  the  two  methods  of  planting,  gave  results  decidedly  in  favor  of 
drilling  the  seed.  The  yield  from  seed  planted  4  to  6  inches  apart  in 
drills  was  about  double  the  yield  from  the  same  amount  of  seed  planted  in 
hills  18  inches  apart.  Other  experiments,  have  shown  similar  results. 
Drilling  the  seed  gives  a  much  better  distribution  of  plants  and  eliminates 
crowding.  Seeds  of  garden  beans  are  commonly  spaced  2  to  4  inches 
apart  in  rows  2  to  3  feet  apart,  but  2  inches  is  too  close  for  any  variety. 
Spacing  4  to  6  inches  apart  would  give  better  results  with  most  garden 
varieties.  Most  field  beans  are  planted  4  to  6  inches  apart  in  rows  24  to 
36  inches  apart  although  on  dry  land  a  greater  distance  is  given.  Garcia 
(52)  recommends  6  to  12  inches  apart  in  the  row  for  Pinto  beans  6  inches 
giving  the  largest  yield  at  the  Experiment  Station  in  New  Mexico. 

Pole  beans  are  planted  in  hills,  3  by  3,  3  by  4,  or  4  by  4  feet  apart 
and  4  to  6  seeds  are  planted  in  each  hill  and  then  thinned  to  3  or  4  plants 
if  necessary.  The  poles  are  set  before  the  seeds  are  planted  and  the  hills 
are  often  raised  a  few  inches  to  secure  good  drainage.  Another  method 
of  planting  this  type  of  bean  is  to  sow  the  seed  in  a  drill  the  same  as  bunch 
beans  and  use  a  wire  trellis  for  supporting  the  plants.  Some  types  of 
pole  beans  (cornfield  beans)  are  planted  with  corn  and  the  corn  stalks 
serve  as  supports  for  the  vines. 

The  amount  of  seed,  of  course,  varies  greatly,  depending  upon  the 
spacing  and  the  size  of  seed.  Durst  (41)  gives  the  following  table  showing 
the  quantity  required  per  acre  with  the  rows  28  inches  apart,  and  the  seeds 
drilled  4  inches  apart  in  the  rows : 


BEANS  AND  PEAS  339 

Table  XLVIII. — Quantity  of  Seed  for  Various  Varieties  of  Beans  Planted 
4  Inches  Apart  in  Rows  28  Inches  Apart 


Variety 


Number  of  seeds    |  Pounds  required  to 
in  an  ounce         i        plant  an  acre 


Navy 

New  White  Seeded . .  . 
Davis  Kidney  Wax . . . 
Michigan  White  Wax. 

White  Marrow 

Red  Kidney 

Dwarf  Horticultural . . 
Improved  rtodchird.  .  . 


124 

28.2 

9G 

36.4 

77 

45.5 

78 

44.8 

68 

51.5 

63 

55.5 

54 

64.8 

44 

79.5 

Hendry  (72)  recommends  planting  the  Tepar}-,  Red  Mexican,  Pink, 
Lady  Washington  and  Small  White  6  to  10  inches  apart  in  rows  26  to 
30  inches  apart.  At  6  by  28  inches  8.8  pounds  of  Tepary  beans  seed 
would  be  required  for  an  acre,  27.3  for  Lady  Washington,  32.6  for  Pink 
and  23.8  for  Red  Mexican. 

The  depth  of  planting  varies,  but  beans  should  be  planted  no  deeper 
than  is  necessary  to  get  the  seed  into  moist  soil.  The  depth  should 
be  less  on  heavy  than  on  light  soils.  In  humid  regions  1^^  to  2  inches 
deep  on  heavy  soils  and  2  to  3  inches  on  light  soils  are  the  usual  depths 
of  planting.  Garcia  (52)  gives  results  of  experiments  in  planting  at 
different  depths  on  wet  soil  (irrigated  before  planting)  and  on  dry  soil 
(irrigated  after  planting).  The  best  germination  on  wet  soil  was  at  the 
depths  of  3  and  4  inches.  At  1  inch  deep  the  germination  was  poor. 
On  dry  soil  1,  2,  and  3  inches  gave  the  highest  germination,  while  the 
germination  was  very  poor  at  4  and  5  inches  deep.  Irrigating  the  soil 
after  the  seed  is  planted  tends  to  pack  the  soil  and  the  surface  soon 
loses  its  moisture  hence  the  germination  is  poor  if  shallow  planting 
is  practiced. 

Cultivation. — Clean,  shallow  cultivation  should  be  practiced.  Deep 
cultivation  is  likely  to  cause  injury  by  destro3dng  the  roots  near  the  surface. 
When  the  plants  reach  full  size  cultivation  should  cease  unless  weed 
growth  is  heavy.  Usually  three  to  five  cultivations  are  sufficient  to 
keep  down  weeds  and  to  maintain  a  satisfactory  mulch.  The  mulch  is 
not  of  much  importance  when  the  plants  reach  full  size  as  they  fairly 
well  cover  the  ground  and  prevent  rapid  evaporation  of  moisture  from 
the  soil. 

Cultivation  should  not  be  given  when  the  vines  are  wet,  since  the 
spores  of  the  anthracnose  organism  are  easily  carried  from  diseased 
to  healthy  plants  at  such  times. 


340  VEGETABLE  CROI\S 

Supporting  Pole  Beans. — Poles  8  to  9  feet  in  length  are  usually 
employed  to  support  climbing  varieties  of  beans.  The  bark  and  stubs  of 
the  small  branches  are  left  on  the  poles  as  the  rough  surface  is  an  advan- 
tage to  the  plants.  The  poles  are  set  in  the  ground  to  the  depth  of  18 
to  24  inches  before  the  beans  are  planted.  If  kept  under  cover  when 
not  in  use  the  poles  will  last  several  years. 

Various  forms  of  trellis  supports  are  used  to  some  extent.  Heavy 
posts  are  set  at  the  ends  of  the  rows  and  lighter  posts  or  stakes  are  set 
at  intervals  of  20  to  25  feet,  then  two  strands  of  No.  10  wire  are  fastened 
to  the  posts,  one  at  the  top  and  one  near  the  ground.  Light  twine  is 
used  to  connect  the  two  wires.  The  twine  is  fastened  to  the  lower  wire 
then  passed  over  the  upper  wire  and  back  under  the  lower  one  and  con- 
tinued in  a  zigzag  fashion  to  the  end  of  the  row.  The  bean  plants  twine 
around  the  string  until  they  reach  the  upper  wire.  This  method  of 
supporting  the  vines  makes  picking  less  difficult  than  when  poles  are 
used,  but  is  expensive. 

Varieties. — Varieties  of  beans  are  listed  under  hundreds  of  names,  but 
many  of  these  are  synonyms.  Jarvis  (79)  found  that  the  Red  Valentine 
variety  was  listed  under  67  different  names  and  many  other  well-known 
varieties  have  many  synonyms.  He  described  150  true  varieties  as 
follows:  40  dwarf  wax-podded,  75  dwarf  green-podded,  10  climbing 
wax-podded  and  25  climbing  green-podded.  Tracy  (165)  described 
185  varieties. 

Various  methods  of  classification  of  varieties  of  beans  have  been 
developed.  Irish  (75)  classified  them  on  the  basis  of  seed,  pod  and  vine 
characters.  Tracy  (165)  based  his  classification  largely  on  vine,  pod, 
and  blossom  characters,  while  Jarvis  (79)  based  his  classification  and  key 
entirely  on  the  seed,  but  in  the  description  of  varieties  the  plant  characters 
were  used.  All  of  these  workers  give  comprehensive  keys  to  cultivated 
varieties  and  complete  detailed  descriptions  of  those  grown  in  the  United 
States. 

Varieties  of  beans  may  be  classed  according  to  their  uses  as  (1)  string 
or  snap  beans,  those  grown  for  the  edible  pod;  (2)  green-shell  beans, 
those  which  are  used  in  the  green-shelled  condition  and  (3)  dry-shell 
beans  or  ripe  seed,  those  used  in  the  dry  state.  Beans  are  also  classed 
according  to  the  color  of  the  pods  as,  green-podded  and  yellow-  or  wax- 
podded.  For  convenience  in  grouping  beans  are  divided  into  dwarf 
or  bush  varieties  and  climbing  varieties,  and  as  field  and  garden  beans. 
The  term  "field  beans"  is  usually  applied  to  those  grown  for  use  in  the 
dry  state  and  includes  four  types,  kidney,  marrow,  medium  and  pea. 
Gilmore  (55)  suggested  the  following  key  for  the  identification  of  the 
four  types  of  field  beans : 

Seed  1.5  cm.  or  more  in  length,  more  or  less  reniform,  ratio — length,  width, 
thickness  X-.48G9-.373 1— Kidney . 


BEANS  AND  PEAS  341 

Seed  between  1  and  1.5  cm.  in  length.  Thickness  exceeding  half  the  length, 
1-.6537-.6029— Marrow. 

Seed  1  to  1.2  cm.  in  length.  Thickness  less  than  half  the  length  1-.678- 
.4975 — Medium. 

Seed  .8  cm.  or  less  in  length,  not  reniform  1-.7467-.6096 — Pea. 

Some  of  the  most  important  varieties  of  field  beans  of  the  various 
types  are  the  following: 

Pea  beans:  Boston  Small  Pea,  Marrow  Pea,  Medium  Pea,  Snowflake,  Navy, 
Michigan  Robust.     The  last  named  is  resistant  to  the  mosaic. 

Medium:  White  Wonder,  Burlingame  Medium,  Blue-pod  Medium. 

Marrow:  Yellow  Eye;  White  Marrow,  Red  Marrow. 

Kidney:  White  Kidney,  Red  Kidney,  White  Imperial  and  Wells  Red  Kidney. 

The  last  two  are  especially  desirable  where  anthracnose  is  serious  as 
they  are  quite  resistant  to  this  disease. 

Some  of  the  important  varieties  of  garden  beans  in  the  various  classes 
are  as  follows : 

Dwarf  Wax-podded:  Wardwell  Kidney  Wax,  Hodson  Wax,  Pencil  Pod  Black 
Wax,  Davis  White  Wax,  Refugee  Wax,  Golden  Wax. 

Dwarf  Green-podded;  Burpee  Stringless  Greenpod,  Refugee  or  1,000  to  1,  Red 
Valentine,  Goddard  or  Dwarf  Horticultural  (Green  shell  beans).  Bountiful  and  Early 
Refugee. 

Climbing  Wax-podded;  Golden  Cluster,  Mont  d'  Or.  and  Kentucky  Wonder  Wax. 

Climbing  Green-podded;  Kentucky  Wonder,  Creaseback  and  Lazy  Wife. 

Diseases. — Beans  are  subject  to  several  very  serious  diseases,  includ- 
ing anthracnose  or  pod  spot,  bacterial  blight,  mosaic,  dry  root-rot  and 
rust. 

Anthracnose  {CoUetotrichum  lindemuthianum) . — This  disease  is  often 
known  among  growers  as  rust.  It  attacks  the  stems,  leaves  and  pods 
and  the  seeds  of  the  plants.  On  the  stems  and  leaf-veins  it  causes 
elongated,  sunken,  dark-red  cankers.  On  the  pods  the  disease  causes 
rounded  or  irregular  sunken  spots  with  pink  centers  surrounded  by  a 
darker  reddish  border.  In  severe  cases  the  pod  may  be  entirely  covered 
by  the  spots  and  produce  no  seed.  In  other  cases  the  fungus  penetrates 
the  pods  and  enters  the  seed,  causing  dark  spots.  Diseased  seeds  and 
refuse  from  diseased  plants  carry  the  fungus  from  season  to  season. 

Control  measures  suggested  by  Orton  (111)  are  as  follows: 

Save  seed  from  perfectly  healthy  pods,  selected  with  great  care  for  entire 
absence  of  spotting.  Carefully  keep  them  away  from  diseased  pods,  shell  by 
hand  to  avoid  reinfection,  and  plant  on  clean  land.  Pull  and  burn  any  plants 
showing  disease. 

In  the  absence  of  such  disease-free  seed  (1)  secure  for  planting  seed  having 
the  least  possible  amount  of  disease  as  shown  by  actual  examination;  (2)  all 
seed  should  be  hand  picked  and  no  seed  showing  the  slightest  discoloration  should 


342  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

be  planted;  (3)  practice  crop  rotation  and  never  plant  beans  on  land  where  there 
is  any  refuse  of  last  year's  crop;  (4)  do  not  cultivate  or  walk  through  the  bean 
field  or  pick  beans  while  wet  with  dew  or  rain.  If  the  disease  is  present  it  is 
easily  spread  from  one  part  of  the  field  to  another. 

The  use  of  resistant  varieties,  such  as  Wells  Red  Kidney  and  White 
Imperial,  is  probably  the  most  satisfactory  method  of  control  where 
anthracnose  is  serious. 

Bacterial  Blight  (Bacterium  phaseoli).- — Bacterial  blight  or  bean 
blight  produces  u-regular  diseased  areas,  which  at  first  have  a  water-soaked 
appearance,  but  later  become  brown  and  brittle.  On  the  pods  the  disease 
starts  as  slightly  raised  pustules  which  later  enlarge  and  become  irregular 
in  shape  and  amber  in  color.  Infected  seeds  show  yellow  blotches  or  are 
entirely  yellowed  and  shriveled. 

This  disease  is  very  difficult  to  control  but  the  same  methods  as  for 
anthracnose  are  recommended. 

Mosaic. — This  disease  shows  on  the  leaves  as  alternate  light  and  dark 
green  areas.  No  causal  organism  has  been  discovered.  The  disease  is 
said  to  be  carried  over  in  the  seed. 

Seed  from  disease-free  fields  should  be  used  for  planting.  Marrow 
and  Yellow-eye  beans  are  resistant  to  the  disease  and  the  Red  Kidney  is 
somewhat  resistant.  Michigan  Robust  bean,  a  high-yielding  strain 
developed  at  the  Michigan  Agricultural  College  is  highly  resistant  to 
mosaic  while  other  pea  beans  and  medium  beans  are  very  susceptible. 

Dry  Root-rot. — This  disease,  due  to  a  species  of  Fusarium,  is  very 
serious  in  some  bean-growing  sections.  The  fungus  affects  the  parts 
below  the  surface  of  the  soil  causing  a  dry  rot. 

No  satisfactory  control  measures  have  been  found  for  this  disease. 
Breeding  for  the  production  of  strains  resistant  to  the  Fusarium  gives 
promise  of  results,  but  no  commercial,  resistant  strain  is  available  at 
present.  Planting  on  land  free  from  the  organism,  practicing  long  rota- 
tions and  avoiding  the  use  of  bean  straw  or  manure  on  uncontaminated 
soil  are  recommended. 

Rust  (Uromyces  appendiculatus). — The  rust  is  very  widespread,  but 
is  not  considered  serious  in  most  bean-growing  states.  It  is,  however, 
serious  in  Virginia,  West  Virginia,  Tennessee,  Georgia,  Louisiana,  and 
Southern  California.  The  losses  due  to  the  rust  are  indirect,  being  due  to 
decreased  vigor  on  account  of  foHage  injury. 

This  disease  should  not  be  confused  with  anthracnose  which  is  some- 
times called  "rust."  The  seed  catalogues  use  the  name  rust  for  anthrac- 
nose and  their  so-called  "rust-proof"  or  "rust-resistant"  varieties  are 
supposed  to  be  resistant  to  anthracnose.  The  rust  attacks  the  leaves 
chiefly  and  all  of  the  injury  results  from  infection  of  the  leaf.  The  leaves 
are  covered  with  small,  reddish-brown  spore  masses.     Within  a  few 


BEANS  AND  PEAS  343 

clays  after  the  rust  pustules  appear  the  leaf  begins  to  turn  yellow  and 
later  brown,  then  it  dries  up  and  drops  off. 

Fromme  and  Wingard  (50)  recommend  the  use  of  rust-resistant 
varieties  as  follows : 

Dry  shell  beans:  Dwarf  Horticultural  and  Red  Kidney,  for  colored  beans;  White 
Marrow  and  White  Kidney  for  white  beans.  Avoid  Navy,  Snowflake,  Pinto,  Pink 
and  Tepary. 

Pole  beans:  Horticultural  Pole,  Lazy  Wife  for  green-pods  and  Mont,  d'  Or  for 
wax-pod.     Avoid  Kentucky  Wonder,  Creaseback,  Virginia  Cornfield,  etc. 

Green- Pod  beans:  Black  Valentine.  Burpee's  Stringless,  Hodson  Green-pod, 
Low's  Champion,  Refugee  and  Warren. 

Wax-Pod  beans:  New  Pearl  and  Pencil  Pod. 

Bean  Insects. — Many  insects  attack  the  bean,  the  most  important 
being  the  bean  weevil,  bean  leaf  beetle,  bean  lady  bird,  bean  thrips,  bean 
aphis,  and  bean  fly  or  seed  corn  maggot. 

Bean  Beetle  (Bruchus  obtedus). — This  insect  is  a  small  dull-colored 
beetle  found  in  stored  beans.  The  eggs  are  laid  in  the  pods  in  the  field 
and  the  larvae  or  grubs  develop  in  the  seeds  and  transform  into  beetles 
in  cavities  just  under  the  seed  coat.  The  beetle  cuts  a  circular  opening 
through  the  seed  coat  in  emerging.  Several  beetles  may  develop  in  a 
single  seed.  In  the  South  there  may  be  six  or  more  generations  in  a  year, 
but  in  the  North  there  is  usually  only  one  generation  a  year.  Where  there 
is  more  than  one  generation  the  breeding  may  be  continuous  in  storage. 
The  number  of  generations  depends  upon  the  temperature. 

Beans  infested  with  weevils  should  not  be  planted  since  the  germi- 
nation is  likely  to  be  poor.  The  weevils  in  the  beans  can  be  killed  by 
fumigating  with  carbon  disulphid  at  the  rate  of  3  to  8  pounds  to  each  1,000 
cubic  feet  of  space  to  be  fumigated,  the  amount  to  be  used  varying  with 
the  tightness  of  the  container  and  the  temperature.  The  liquid  should  be 
poured  over  the  top  of  the  seeds  to  be  fumigated.  It  quickly  vaporizes 
and  the  gas,  being  heavier  than  air,  sinks  to  the  bottom  of  the  container, 
filling  the  air  spaces.  For  best  results  the  temperature  should  be  75 
degrees  F.  or  above.  It  is  not  effective  at  60  degrees  F,  or  below.  For 
fumigating  small  qviantities  place  the  beans  in  a  tight  receptacle  and  use  1 
ounce  to  each  bushel  to  be  fumigated.  Heating  the  beans  to  120  to 
145  degrees  F.  for  several  hours  also  destroys  the  weevil.  At  low  tempera- 
tures the  insects  do  not  feed  and  cause  damage;  hence  storing  in  cold 
storage  prevents  injury. 

In  addition  to  the  common  bean  weevil  there  are  several  other  species 
which  attack  beans,  but  the  same  control  measures  are  effective  for  all 
of  them. 

Bean  Leaf  Beetle  (Cerotoma  trifurcata). — This  insect  is  a  small 
beetle,  about  }i  inch  long,  yellowish  to  reddish  and  has  6  black  dots  on  the 
wing  covers.     The  beetles  eat  large  holes  in  the  leaves,  feeding  from  the 


344  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

underside.  The  eggs  are  laid  on  the  ground  at  the  base  of  the  plant  and 
the  grubs  feed  on  the  roots  and  the  main  stem  just  below  the  surface. 
From  one  to  three  broods  occur  each  j'ear,  depending  upon  the  length  of 
the  growing  season. 

Spraying  with  arsenate  of  lead,  4  pounds  of  paste  or  2  pounds  of  pow- 
der to  50  gallons  of  water,  will  kill  the  })eetle  if  both  sides  of  the  leaves 
are  covered. 

Bean  Lady  Bug  {Epilachna  corrupta). — This  insect  is  the  most 
destructive  bean  insect  from  Colorado  southward  to  Mexico.  It  is  a 
small  insect,  ^^  inch  long,  yellowish  to  brown-orange  in  color,  with  16 
small  dots  on  the  wing  covers.  Both  grubs  and  beetles  devour  all  por- 
tions of  the  plants.  Eggs  are  laid  on  the  undersides  of  the  leaves  and 
the  larvae  skeletonize  them.     There  are  one  or  two  generations  annually. 

In  the  home  garden  hand  picking  may  be  resorted  to,  but  in  com- 
mercial plantings  this  is  impracticable.  Spraying  with  arsenate  of  lead 
double  strength,  8  pounds  of  paste  or  4  pounds  of  powder  to  50  gallons  of 
water,  with  4  pounds  of  lime  to  prevent  burning  the  foliage,  will  kill  the 
insects.  The  underside  of  the  leaves  must  be  sprayed.  Brushing  them 
off  on  the  ground  causes  many  of  them  to  perish. 

Bean  Thrips  {Heliothrips  fasciatus). — In  the  far  west  this  insect 
sometimes  injures  the  bean  crop  quite  seriously.  The  adult  insect  is 
about  3'^5  inch  long,  grayish-black,  in  color.  Infested  leaves  of  the  bean 
plant  turn  pale  and  drop  off.     The  pod  takes  on  a  silvery-white  appearance. 

This  insect  is  seldom  injurious  enough  to  justify  special  control  meas- 
ures. If  the  plants  are  kept  in  a  thrifty  condition  they  can  usually 
withstand  the  attack,  but  when  necessary  to  spray,  nicotine  sulphate,  40 
per  cent,  1  part  to  800  parts  water,  to  which  soap  has  been  added  will 
control  this  insect.  The  spray  should  be  applied  to  the  underside  of 
the  leaves. 

Bean  Aphis  (Aphis  rwmicis). — The  bean  aphis  is  a  small  black  plant 
louse,  widely  distributed  throughout  this  country,  but  is  especially  serious 
in  California.  The  insect  passes  the  winter  in  the  egg  stage  on  various 
cultivated  shrubs.  It  attacks  many  vegetables  and  several  common 
weeds.  Spraying  with  nicotine  sulphate,  as  suggested  for  the  thrips 
will  keep  the  aphis  under  control. 

Bean  Fly  or  Seed-corn  Maggot  (Phorbia  fusciceps) . — The  adult  fly 
is  about  the  size  and  appearance  of  the  house  fly.  The  larva  is  a  small, 
whitish  maggot  which  tunnels  in  the  seeds,  sprouts  and  stems  of  the  plant 
\mder ground  and  in  the  stalks  above.  Applying  corrosive  sublimate  as 
described  for  the  cabbage  maggot  would  probably  aid  in  controlling  this 
pest. 

Harvesting. — Snap  beans  are  usually  harvested  before  the  pods  are 
full-grown  and  while  the  seeds  are  small.  Most  varieties  get  tough  and 
stringy  if  left  on  the  plants  until  th(>  seeds  develop  to  full  size.     Picking  is 


BEANS  AND  PEAS  345 

done  entirely  by  hand  and  the  amount  of  labor  required  restricts  large 
scale  production  to  localities  having  an  abundant  supply  of  labor  which 
can  be  had  at  any  time. 

After  picking  string  beans  they  should  be  sorted  to  pick  out  diseased, 
broken  and  injured  pods.  They  are  then  packed  in  hampers,  baskets 
or  boxes.  Half-bushel,  bushel  and  half-barrel  hampers  are  used  quite 
commonly  for  shipping  string  beans  from  the  South.  The  round  stave 
bushel  basket  is  used  in  some  sections.  The  package  should  be  well- 
filled  by  shaking  the  basket  as  the  beans  are  being  packed. 

When  beans  are  transported  long  distances  during  warm  weather  they 
are  shipped  in  refrigerator  cars. 

Harvesting  Dry  Beans.— Dry  beans  are  harvested  as  soon  as  a  large 
percentage  of  the  pods  are  fully  matured  and  have  turned  yellow.  Most 
varieties  do  not  ripen  evenly  hence  it  is  desirable  to  watch  the  field  and  to 
begin  harvesting  before  the  lower  pods  get  dry  enough  to  shatter.  Some 
varieties  shatter  more  than  others.  Teparies  shatter  very  badly  and  Red 
Kidney  drops  its  seed  if  allowed  to  remain  standing  until  the  pods  are 
fully  dry. 

Small  areas  of  dry  beans  are  pulled.  When  grown  on  a  large  scale 
bean  harvesters  are  commonly  used.  These  machines  are  equipped  with 
cutting  bars  which  cut  off  the  plants  below  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
Guard  rods,  attached  above  the  cutting  bars,  move  the  bean  plants  after 
they  have  been  cut.  Two  rows  are  usually  cut  at  one  time  and  the  plants 
are  thrown  together  into  one  row.  The  vines  are  left  in  the  windrow,  or 
thrown  together  into  small  piles  and  left  for  several  days  to  cure.  If  the 
vines  are  still  green  when  harvested  they  should  be  left  in  the  windrow 
until  they  become  fairly  dry.  After  curing  for  awhile  in  the  windrow  or 
in  small  piles  they  are  hauled  to  the  barn  where  they  are  stored  until 
they  are  threshed.  Formerly  beans  were  stacked  in  small  stacks  in  the 
field,  but  this  practice  is  seldom  followed  in  the  main  bean-growing  sections 
of  the  eastern  portion  of  the  United  States  at  the  present  time.  In 
sections  of  the  West  they  are  stacked  in  small  stacks  (four  or  five  wagon 
loads)  although  larger  ones  are  sometimes  used.  In  California  the  beans 
are  cured  in  small  cocks  similar  to  those  used  in  curing  hay. 

Threshing. — Beans  are  commonly  threshed  with  machines  similar  to 
grain  threshers.  The  common  type  of  thresher  used  for  beans  has  two 
cylinders  and  these  are  run  at  lower  speeds  than  is  common  in  threshing 
wheat,  rye,  etc.  Grain  threshers  are  sometimes  used,  but  they  are 
unsatisfactory,  even  when  the  speed  is  reduced  to  300  or  400  revolutions 
per  minute.  Such  machines  should  be  further  changed  by  removing  all 
but  one  row  of  concave  teeth  and  one-half  of  the  cylinder  teeth. 

The  flail  is  still  used  in  some  places  where  only  a  small  quantity  is 
to  be  threshed.  In  California  disc  rollers,  pulled  by  unshod  horses,  are 
sometimes  used  for  threshing  beans.     A  threshing  floor  is  prepared  by 


34 G  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

wetting  and  rolling  a  piece  of  adobe  soil  until  it  is  smooth  and  hard,  or 
a  heavy  canvas  may  be  used.  A  deep  layer  of  cured  vines  is  then  placed 
on  the  floor  and  after  being  run  over  with  the  roller  until  the  beans  are 
separated  from  the  pods  the  vines  are  forked  off  and  the  process  is 
repeated  until  several  tons  of  beans  have  accumulated.  The  beans  are 
then  cleaned  in  fanning  mills. 

The  combined  harvester  and  thresher  is  also  used  to  some  extent  in 
California.  The  beans  are  left  in  the  windrow  until  thoroughly  cuied, 
when  they  are  picked  up  by  the  movable  threshing  machine  driven  by  its 
own  power  or  pulled  by  a  tractor. 

SCARLET  RUNNER  OR  MULTIFLORA  BEAN 

The  Scarlet  Runner  (Phaseolus  multiflorus) ,  also  called  Dutch  Case 
Knife,  is  probably  a  native  of  central  America  or  South  America,  although 
it  was  formerly  supposed  to  have  been  indigenous  to  Asia.  In  America 
it  is  grown  mainly  as  an  ornamental  climber;  the  spikes  or  rich  scarlet 
flowers  and  the  deep  green  foliage  makes  it  one  of  the  most  showy  and 
attractive  plants.  In  Europe  this  bean  is  used  as  food.  The  tender, 
green  pods  only  are  eaten  in  some  localities,  while  in  others  the  green 
and  dry  seeds  are  used. 

The  plant  grows  12  feet  or  more  in  height  and  requires  115  to  120 
days  to  mature  its  seeds.  In  germinating  the  Scarlet  Runner  differs  from 
other  species  of  Phaseolus  in  that  the  cotyledons  remain  in  the  ground 
and  the  germination  is  known  as  hypogeal.  The  plant  produces  a 
thickened  root  somewhat  like  the  Dahlia,  though  smaller. 

LIMA  BEAN 

Lima  beans  are  important  in  the  warmer  parts  of  the  United  States, 
especially  in  the  southern  states  and  in  California.  They  require  a 
longer  growing  season  than  the  common  bean  and  are  less  hardy  to  cold. 
They  are  grown  for  use  as  green-shell  beans  and  as  dry  beans,  the 
latter  industry  being  confined  largely  to  southern  California.  According 
to  figures  furnished  by  the  Lima  Bean  Growers'  Association  and  quoted  by 
Shaw  and  Sherwin  (133)  82,850  acres  were  grown  in  5  counties  in 
California  in  1910  and  the  yield  was  1,160,000  sacks  of  80  pounds  each. 
Green  lima  beans  especially  of  the  bush  type,  are  grown  by  market  gar- 
deners even  in  the  northern  states  where  the  frost  free  period  is  3J^  to 
4  months  in  duration. 

History  and  Taxonomy. — Linnaeus  believed  that  the  lima  bean  was  of 
African  origin,  but  it  is  now  known  to  be  of  tropical  American  origin, 
probably  South  America.  Seeds  have  been  found  in  Peruvian  tombs  and 
the  plant  has  been  found  growing  wild  in  Brazil.  Sturtevant  (157) 
states  that  in  southei-n  Florida,  the  lima  bean  is  fountl  growing  spontan- 
eously in  abandoned  Indian  plantations.     It  is  now  widely  distributed, 


BEANS  AND  PEAS  347 

but  since  it  requires  a  warm  season  it  is  not  grown  as  much  in  northern 
Europe  as  in  the  United  States. 

There  are  two  distinct  types  in  cultivation  in  the  United  States, 
the  sieva,  Carohna  or  small  lima  {Phaseolus  lunatus)  and  the  large 
or  flat  lima  (P.  lunatus  var.  macrocarpiis) .  Jarvis  (79)  gives  the  follow- 
ing descriptions : 

Sieva  Lima.^ — Plant  annual,  climbing  or  dwarf,  frail,  slender  branches; 
leaflets  moderately  small,  ovate,  acuminate  (one  garden  variety  has  linear-lan- 
ceolate leaflets),  thin,  smooth',  glossy,  dark  green;  flowers  small,  white  or  greenish- 
white,  in  axillary  racemes;  pods  2  to  4  inches  long,  3-2  to  %  i'lch  broad,  curved, 
well-defined  point  or  spur,  2  to  4  seeded,  green;  seeds  small,  flat,  subreniform, 
with  distinct  lines  radiating  from  the  hilum  to  the  dorsal  margin,  variously 
colored. 

Large  Lima. — Plant  perennial  in  the  South,  grown  as  an  annual  in  the 
North,  vigorous  grower,  climbing  or  dwarf;  leaflets  large,  ovate  or  ovate- 
lanceolate,  thick,  stiff,  slightly  pubescent,  dull  green;  pods  large,  3  to  6  inches 
long,  1  to  IK  inches  broad,  flat,  frequently  twisted,  point  or  spur  very  short  or 
wanting;  seeds  very  large,  usually  verj^  flat  and  reniform  (the  potato  type  quite 
turgid  and  subreniform),  variously  colored.  It  differs  from  the  sieva  type 
chiefly  in  being  perennial  (in  the  South),  in  making  a  larger  growth,  in  being 
less  hardy,  later  in  season,  and  in  having  larger  leaves  and  pods.  Many  strains, 
differing  chiefly  in  season  and  size  of  pod,  are  in  cultivation.  The  type  of  many 
of  these  modified  forms  is  not  well  fixed  and,  for  this  reason,  it  is  diflacult  to  make 
accurate  descriptions  and  comparisons. 

Culture. — In  general,  the  culture  of  both  types  of  lima  beans  is 
practically  the  same  as  for  the  common  or  kidney  bean.  The  lima, 
especially  the  large  type,  is  less  hardy  to  cold  than  the  common  bean 
and  should  not  be  planted  until  all  danger  of  frost  is  over  and  the  soil 
has  become  warm,  since  the  seeds  rot  in  cold  soil.  It  also  requires  a 
longer  growing  season  than  the  common  bean.  The  pole  varieties  of 
large  lima  do  not  produce  satisfactory  crops  in  regions  having  less 
than  4  months'  frost-free  period,  with  warm  weather,  including  warm 
nights  for  a  considerable  portion  of  this  period.  The  main  regions  of 
production  of  lima  beans  are  the  southern  states  and  California,  the 
latter  producing  practically  all  of  the  dry  limas.  In  the  northern 
states  the  bush  varieties  of  both  the  sieva  and  large  lima  beans  are 
more  generally  grown  than  the  climbing  varieties.  The  large  type  is 
less  hardy  and  requires  a  longer  season  than  the  sieva  types,  hence  the 
latter  is  grown  to  a  greater  extent  than  the  former  in  regions  having  a 
relatively  short  growing  season.  Climbing  varieties,  as  a  rule,  require 
more  time  to  mature  than  the  bush  or  dwarf  varieties. 

In  considerable  portions  of  the  northern  border  states  the  climbing 
varieties  of  large  lima  do  not  mature  enough  crop  before  frost  in  autumn 
when  planted  direct  to  the  garden  to  justify  growing.     However,   by 


348  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

starting  the  seeds  in  j)()<s,  i):iper  bunds,  Iterry  ])Oxes,  or  tin  cans  in  a  green- 
house or  hotbed  3  or  4  weeks  before  it  is  safe  to  plant  in  the  open,  a  satis- 
factory yield  is  often  secured.  Even  by  following  this  method  the  yield 
is  low  in  regions  having  cool  nights  for  a  considerable  portion  of  the  grow- 
ing season. 

On  light  soils  lima  beans  mature  earlier  than  on  heavy  soils,  hence 
in  regions  having  a  short  growing  season  the  lighter  types  should  be 
selected,  provided  other  conditions  are  favorable.  Shaw  and  Sherwin 
(133)  state  that  the  difference  in  time  of  maturity  is  very  great  between 
sandy  and  clayey  soils,  and  still  greater  between  dry  and  moist  soils .    .    . 

It  seems  that  the  water  supply  of  the  soil  more  than  the  texture  is  responsible 
for  the  difference  in  time  of  ripening,  as  irrigation  on  light  soils  causes  the  same 
lateness  of  maturity.  Thus,  we  find  a  tendenc}^  toward  the  perennial  habit 
which  the  plant  maintains  under  the  humid  conditions  of  the  tropics. 

Soils  with  much  nitrogen  tend  toward  late  maturity,  hence  the  limas  ripen 
later  on  land  which  has  been  recently  manured.  On  the  other  hand,  the  mineral 
elements  tend  toward  early  maturity.  Limas  require  a  richer  soil  than  do  the 
white  kidney  beans,  the  pole  varieties  require  a  richer  soil  than  the  J^ush  varieties. 

It  may  be  said  that  all  those  soil  conditions  which  tend  to  delay  ripening 
tend  also  to  increase  yield  of  beans,  provided,  of  course,  the  ripening  period  is 
not  too  long  delayed. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  above  quotations  are  based  on 
California  conditions.  In  other  regions,  having  a  shorter  growing  season 
the  yield  may  be  much  heavier  on  the  lighter  soils  due  to  earlier  maturity, 
therefore  a  longer  bearing  period. 

Supporting  the  Vines. — Climbing  varieties  of  lima  beans  arc  usually 
supported  as  mentioned  for  the  climbing  varieties  of  kidney  beans, 
but  in  California,  where  they  are  grown  for  dry  beans  the  plants  grow 
on  the  ground.  The  climbing  varieties  of  large  limas  are  planted  in 
rows  2)^  to  3  feet  apart  with  the  seeds  6  to  12  inches  in  the  row.  The 
plants  spread  across  the  row  and  form  a  mulch  which  prevents  rapid 
evaporation.  Since  the  crop  is  grown  in  California  during  the  dry  season 
the  vines  sprawl  on  the  ground  with  no  injury  to  the  pods. 

Varieties. — As  already  mentioned  there  are  two  distinct  types  of 
lima  beans,  the  sieva  or  Carolina  and  the  large  or  flat  lima,  and  both 
types  include  dwarf  and  climbing  varieties.  Among  the  varieties  of 
dwarf  sieva  or  Carolina  beans,  Henderson  Bush  Lima  (Dwarf  Sieva  and 
Dwarf  Carolina)  is  the  best  known.  The  best  known  climbing  variety  of 
the  sieva  type  is  Carohna  or  Sieva  Lima,  the  "Butter  Bean"  of  the  South. 
Of  the  large  lima  (P.  lunatus  var.  macrocarpus)  two  classes  arc  recognized, 
the  large-seeded  or  flat  limas  and  the  potato  limas.  Dreer's  Bush 
Lima,  Burpee's  Bush  Lima  and  Fordhook  Bush  Lima  are  well-known 
varieties  of  bush  beans  of  the  potato-lima  class.  Early  Leviathan,  King 
of  the  Garden,  Challenger  or  "Potato"  Lima  and  the  Lewis  Lima  are 


BEANS  AND  PEAS  349 

important  varieties  of  climbing  limas  of  the  large  type.  The  Lewis 
Lima  is  the  most  important  variety  grown  in  California  for  the  dry  seed. 

The  sieva  lima  beans  are  of  value  mainly  because  of  their  earliness 
since  they  are  inferior  in  quality  to  the  large  limas. 

Harvesting. — Lima  beans,  grown  for  use  in  the  green-shell  condition 
are  picked  by  hand  when  the  seeds  have  become  nearly  or  quite  full- 
grown,  but  before  the  pods  turn  yellow.  Half-grown  beans  sell  for  a 
higher  price  than  the  full-grown  ones,  but  the  yield  is  lower  and  they  are 
more  difficult  to  shell.  They  are  shelled  by  hand  and  usually  are  packed 
in  quart  berry  boxes  for  market.  The  sheUing  is  a  very  tedious,  expensive 
operation  and  probably  is  the  main  factor  hmiting  the  production  of  green 
limas  for  market. 

Dry  lima  beans  are  harvested  in  very  much  the  same  way  as  common 
field  beans.  In  California  a  cutter  is  used  which  cuts  two  rows  at  a  time 
and  both  rows  are  pushed  together  in  the  middle.  The  vines  are  left  in  the 
windrows  for  a  few  hours  and  then  piled  by  hand  with  pitchforks.  Three 
windrows  are  commonly  brought  together  in  one  row  of  piles.  These  piles 
are  4  or  5  feet  in  diameter  on  the  ground  and  3  feet  high.  They  remain 
in  these  piles  until  they  are  very  dry,  the  time  depending  upon  the 
weather  and  the  maturity  of  the  beans,  but  usually  from  2  to  3  weeks. 

Threshing. — Lima  beans  are  threshed  with  a  machine  similar  to  a 
grain  thresher.  Shaw  and  Sherwin  (133)  give  the  following  details 
regarding  the  machine  used: 

.  .  .  The  bean  threshers  have  three  cylinders  which  are  run  at  a  speed 
of  280  to  350  revolutions  per  minute  instead  of  a  single  cylinder  running  at  a 
speed  of  1,100  revolutions  per  minute.  The  cylinder  teeth  are  set  to  run  %  inch 
from  the  teeth  of  the  concave  as  against  %  in  cereal  threshers.  The  use  of 
three  cyHnders  with  teeth  set  Sg  of  an  inch  from  the  teeth  of  the  concave  avoids 
an  excessive  breaking  and  splitting  of  the  beans,  which  occur  with  the  single 
cylinder  running  at  high  speed  with  teeth  set  close. 

After  threshing  the  beans  are  stored  in  warehouses  until  they  are 
to  be  marketed,  when  they  are  recleaned.  A  machine  is  used  for  the 
recleaning  and  for  separating  the  split  beans  from  the  whole  ones.  The 
beans  are  marketed  in  bags. 

TEPARY  BEAN 

The  tepary  bean  {Phaseolus  acutifolius  var.  LatifoUus)  is  probably 
native  of  southwestern  United  States  and  northern  Mexico  and  was 
domesticated  by  prehistoric  Indian  races.  Freeman  (49)  states  that  47 
distinct  types  have  been  isolated  and  grown  at  the  Arizona  Experiment 
Station. 

Teparj^  beans  are  especially  valuable  in  the  arid  regions  of  the  South- 
west and  in  similar  regions  of  Mexico  and  elsewhere.  They  withstand 
extreme  heat  and  dry  atmosphere  better  than  any  other  type  of  bean. 


350  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

Freeman  (49)  writes  as  follows  regarding  the  botanical  relationship  of 
the  teparj^: 

The  tepary  differs  from  both  the  kidney  bean  {Phaseolus  vulgaris)  and 
the  lima  bean  (Phaseolus  lunatus)  in  several  marked  botanical  characters. 
The  seeds  are  smaller,  averaging  .15  grams,  while  the  kidney  beans  average  .23 
grams  and  the  limas  average  .50  grams  or  more.  When  present  at  all  the 
markings  or  flecks  on  teparies  are  much  finer  than  on  the  other  two.  The  seed 
coat  of  the  tepary  lacks  the  characteristic  glossiness  of  the  kidney  bean. 

The  length  of  the  petioles  of  the  first  pair  of  aerial  leaves  is  strikingly  differ- 
ent in  the  tepary  and  in  Phaseolus  vulgaris  and  lunatus.  Measurements  of 
the  mature  petiole  of  the  first  pair  or  aerial  leaves  on  a  large  number  of  seed- 
lings of  several  varieties  of  each  gave  the  average  of  the  tepary  4.3  mm.,  for 
kidney  beans  24.33  mm.,  and  for  the  limas  43.7  mm.  The  first  two  pairs  of 
aerial  leaves  of  all  three  species  are  simple,  but  those  of  the  tepary  differ  from 
the  others  in  having  truncate  instead  of  cordate  bases.  They  are  also  smaller 
and  narrower   .    .    . 

.  .  .  The  flowers  of  the  tepary  are  smaller  than  those  of  the  kidney  bean, 
the  wings  are  narrower  in  comparison  with  their  length  and  the  banner  is  more 
strongh^  reflexed  in  flower  .    .    . 

The  culture  of  the  tepary  bean  is  not  very  different  from  that  given 
the  common  kidney  bean  when  grown  under  similar  conditions.  Free- 
man (49)  suggests  planting  in  rows  3  feet  apart  with  the  seeds  spaced  6 
inches  apart  in  the  furrow  and  covered  to  the  depth  of  4  inches,  or  else 
in  hills  18  inches  apart  with  two  to  four  seeds  in  a  hill.  "It  is  important 
that  the  seeds  be  covered  immediately  following  the  opening  of  the  furrow 
if  quick  germination  and  a  uniform  stand  is  to  be  insured." 

Teparies  are  now  grown  in  Arizona,  New  Mexico,  and  in  sections  of 
California,  especially  in  the  hot,  dry  interior  valleys. 

After  a  verj^  careful  study  of  the  native  beans  of  the  Southwest, 
Freeman  (49)  gives  the  following  summar}^ : 

The  peculiar  climatic  conditions  of  the  semi-arid,  sub-tropical  Southwest 
are  most  favorable,  usually,  only  to  the  varieties  of  crop  plants  which  have  been 
long  grown  in  the  region,  or  in  similar  regions. 

Among  the  Indians  of  the  Southwest  may  be  found  varieties  of  corn,  beans 
and  squashes  that  have  been  grown  within  the  present  confines  of  Arizona  for 
hundreds  or  perhaps  thousands  of  years.  Centuries  of  adaptation  have  there- 
fore produced  types  well  suited  to  withstand  the  extremes  of  heat  and  drought 
to  which  the  climate  often  exposes  them. 

Native-grown  beans,  the  subject  of  this  bulletin,  are  among  tlie  most  success- 
ful of  these  acclimated  crops. 

Two  different  types  of  beans  have  been  collected  from  the  Indians  of  south- 
ern Arizona,  recognized  by  them  as  distinct  and  commonly  known  by  the  Mexi- 
can names,  "Frijoles"  and  "Teparies." 

Botanical  study  has  established  the  fact  that  these  two  types  are  different 
species,     Frijoles   belong   to   the   group   of   common   kidney   beans    (Phaseolus 


BEANS  AND  PEAS  351 

vulgaris,  Linn.);  while  teparies,  heretofore  unrecognized  in  horticultural  litera- 
ture and  unknown  to  botanists  except  as  a  wild  species,  belong  to  that  large 
and  variable  group  described  by  Gray  as  Phaseolus  acutifolius. 

Frijoles,  now  grown  in  the  Southwest,  are  probably  descendants  of  varieties 
introduced  by  the  early  Spanish  missionaries.  Twenty-three  distinct  varieties 
have  been  tested  at  this  Station,  among  the  most  promising  of  which  may  be 
mentioned  the  Pink  bean,  the  Bayou,  the  Hansen,  the  Garaypata  and  the  Red 
Indian. 

Teparies,  also  grown  by  southwestern  Indians,  were  probably  not  domesti- 
cated from  the  type  form  of  Phaseolus  acutifolius  A.  Gray,  but  from  a  larger, 
more  robust,  broad-leaved  variety  of  the  species  such  as  was  collected  by  Wright 
in  a  valley  of  Sonora  as  early  as  1854,  and  described  by  Gray  as  distinct,  but 
left  unnamed  by  him  probably  on  account  of  lack  of  material,  which  is  now 
abundantly  available. 

The  tepary  {Phaseolus  acutifolius  A.  Gray)  is  therefore  added  to  the  list  of 
species  of  beans  used  as  esculents  and  it  is  suggested  that  this  form  be  called 
Phaseolus  acutifolius  var.  latifolius. 

The  tepary  was  domesticated  from  wild  plants  growing  in  the  canyons  of 
the  southwestern  United  States  and  northern  Mexico  by  prehistoric  Indian 
races.  Being  variable  in  the  wild  state  it  has  responded  during  domestication 
by  the  production  of  many  varieties.  Forty-seven  distinct  types  have  been 
isolated  and  grown  at  this  Station.  Among  the  most  promising  sorts  may  be 
mentioned  the  White  Tepary. 

In  the  Southwest,  by  both  irrigation  and  dry-farming  methods  of  culture, 
these  native-grown  beans  yield  excellent  crops — from  450  to  700  pounds  per  acre 
by  dry-farming  to  800  to  1,500  pounds  under  irrigation.  Under  all  conditions, 
however,  teparies  have  out-yielded  frijoles,  and  in  nine  experiments  herein 
reported,  where  these  two  crops  have  been  compared,  have  averaged  four  times 
the  productiveness  of  frijole  beans. 

The  tepary  is  therefore  recommended  to  the  attention  of  southwestern 
farmers  (1)  as  the  variety  of  bean  best  adapted  to  an  exacting  climate,  and 
(2)  as  a  probable  money  crop  available  both  to  irrigators  and  to  dry-farmers. 

SOYBEAN 

The  Soybean  (Glycine  hispida  or  Soja  Max.)  is  a  native  of  south- 
eastern Asia  and  has  been  cultivated  in  Japan  and  India  since  ancient 
times.  Hundreds  of  varieties  are  grown  in  these  countries  and  in  China. 
In  the  extent  of  uses  and  value  it  is  the  most  important  legume  grown  in 
these  countries.  The  soybean  was  first  introduced  into  the  United 
States  as  early  as  1804,  but  it  is  only  within  the  last  fifteen  years  that  it 
has  become  of  much  importance.  It  is  now  grown  mainly  for  forage  in 
this  country,  although  there  is  interest  in  the  crop  for  the  manufacture  of 
oil  and  for  use  of  human  food. 

In  Asiatic  countries,  especially  China  and  Japan,  the  soybean  is 
second  in  importance  to  rice  as  a  food  crop.  Morse  (100)  gives  the 
following  uses  for  the  soybean  and  the  food  products  made  from  the  seeds: 


352 


VEGETABLE  CROPS 


Meal 


Oil 


Human  food 
Stock  feed 
Fertilizer 


Breakfast  foods 

Diabetic  foods 

Flour 

Infant  foods 

Macaroni 

Crackers 

Milk 


Dried  beans 


Green  beans 


Industrial  uses  of  various  kinds 
Food  Products 

Soy  Sauce 

Boiled  beans 

Baked  beans 

Soups 

Coffee  substitutes 

Roasted  beans 

Vegetable  milk  < 

Breakfast  foods 

Green  vegetables 
Canned 

Salads 


Butter  substitute 
Lard  substitute 
Edible  oils 
Salad  oils 


Cheese 

Condensed  milk 
Fresh  milk 
Confections 
Casein 


Fresh 
Dried 
Smoked 
Fermented 


The  soybean  plants  are  used  for  green  manure,  for  forage  and  for 
pasture. 

The  soybean  has  about  the  same  cHmatic  adaptations  as  corn,  Morse 
(100)  states  that  it  is  especially  adapted  to  the  cotton  region  of  the 
United  States  and  northward  to  the  Ohio  and  Potomac  Rivers.  In  the 
latter  region  the  larger  and  later  varieties,  which  give  yields  that  make 
their  extensive  cultivation  very  profitable,  can  be  grown. 

Recent  introductions  of  early  maturing  varieties  from  northern  Manchuria 
mature  profitable  yields  of  seeds  in  the  northern  tier  of  states,  while  the  later 
varieties  can  be  grown  for  hay  or  ensilage. 

In  the  lower  sections  of  the  Gulf  Coast  and  in  the  Southwest  where 
extreme  hot  weather  prevails  during  the  period  when  the  pods  are  matur- 
ing the  yield  of  seed  is  small. 

The  soybean  is  quite  drought-resistant  and  but  for  the  depredations 
of  rabbits  it  would  be  a  valuable  crop  in  the  semi-arid  West. 

Culture. — The  time  to  plant  soybeans  depfuids  upon  the  length  of  the 
growing  season  and  the  use  to  be  made  of  the  crop.  In  general  the  croj) 
may  be  planted  about  the  same  time  as  corn,  although  in  the  South  soy- 
beans are  planted  as  late  as  August.  When  grown  for  seed  the  crop  is 
usually  planted  in  rows  about  the  same  as  common  beans,  but  for  hay  or 
for  green  manure  broadcast  sowing  is  the  common  practice.  Planting  in 
rows  is  preferred  by  some  authorities  for  all  purposes. 

The  crop  is  harvested  and  handled  about  the  same  as  cow  peas. 


BEANS  AND  PEAS  353 

COWPEA 

The  Cowpea  (Vigna  sinetisis)  is  prol)ably  a  native  of  central  Africa. 
Piper  (115)  reports  that  a  wild  plant  differing  little  from  the  cowpea 
occurs  throughout  a  large  part  of  Africa.  Hybrids  of  this  plant  and  the 
cultivated  cowpea  are  readily  obtained.  According  to  Morse  (99)  the 
cultivated  cowpea  consists  of  three  main  groups,  the  asparagus  bean 
{V.  sinensis  var.  sesquipedalis)  the  catjang  (F.  sinensis  var.  cylindrica) 
and  the  cowpea,  each  of  which  represents  a  group  of  varieties  having  much 
in  common.     The  cowpea  is  the  most  important  of  the  three  groups. 

On  the  history  of  the  cowpea  Morse  (99)  writes  as  follows : 

The  large  number  and  great  diversity  of  cultivated  varieties  throughout 
Africa  and  over  the  southern  half  of  Asia  and  the  adjacent  islands  as  well  as 
the  Mediterranean  region  of  Europe  indicate  that  the  cowpea  is  of  ancient 
cultivation  for  human  food.  It  was  early  introduced  in  the  Spanish  settlements 
of  the  West  Indies  and  was  grown  in  North  CaroHna  in  1714,  probably  coming 
from  the  West  Indies.  Its  culture  in  Virginia  was  reported  about  1775  and  no 
doubt  was  quite  general  in  the  United  States  early  in  the  nineteenth  century. 

Without  doubt,  the  cowpea  is  the  Phaseohis  mentioned  by  the  old  Roman 
writers.  In  Italy  the  Blackeye  cowpea  is  still  called  by  the  same  name  as  the 
kidney  bean,  namely  "fagiolo,"  which  is  the  Italian  equivalent  of  Phaseolus. 
In  East  Africa  both  the  wild  and  cultivated  cowpeas  are  called  "kunde,"  while 
in  India,  where  the  catjang  is  more  extensively  cultivated,  the  name  "lubia," 
with  many  others  is  used.  In  America  the  cowpea  was  first  known  as  "calli- 
vance"  and  later  as  "Indian  pea,"  "southern  pea,"  "southern  field  pea"  and 
"cornfield  pea."  The  first  published  record  of  the  name  cowpea  was  in  1798 
and  applied  apparently  to  a  single  variety. 

In  the  southern  states  the  cowpea  is  often  called  ''pea"  and  the 
garden  pea  {Pisum  sativum)  is  called  "English  pea."  The  term  pea  is, 
however,  incorrect  since  the  cowpea  is  not  a  pea  but  a  bean. 

The  cowpea  was  grown  for  human  food  in  ancient  times,  especially 
in  Africa,  Asia  and  in  parts  of  the  Mediterranean  region  of  Europe. 
While  it  is  grown  mainly  for  hay,  ensilage,  pasturage  for  all  kinds  of 
stock,  and  as  a  soil-improving  crop  in  the  United  States  it  is  used  as 
human  food  in  the  southern  states.  The  seeds  are  used  as  food  both  in 
the  green-shell  and  in  the  dry  condition  and  while  all  varieties  are  eaten 
to  some  extent  the  Blackeye  and  White  varieties  are  the  most  popular. 
These  two  varieties  are  practically  the  only  ones  sold  on  the  market  for 
human  food.  "Blackeyed  peas"  are  more  common  in  the  stores  of  the 
South  than  are  dry  beans. 

The  cowpea  is  of  special  importance  to  the  vegetable  grower  of  the 
South  since  this  is  the  principal  soil-improving  crop  grown.  It  fits  in 
well  with  the  usual  cropping  system  since  it  can  be  grown  during  the 
summer  after  the  spring  or  early  summer  vegetable  crop  is  harvested  and 
before  planting  the  winter  vegetables. 


354  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

Culture. — The  cowpea  is  a  warm-weather  crop  and  is,  therefore, 
grown  mainly  in  the  South,  although  it  is  grown  with  success  in  the  south- 
ern parts  of  Ohio,  Illinois,  Indiana  and  New  Jersey  and  in  parts  of 
Michigan  and  other  northern  states.  It  is  injured  by  the  very  lightest 
frost. 

Cowpeas  thrive  on  all  types  of  well-drained  soils. 

When  planted  for  forage  the  seed  is  usually  sown  broadcast  or  in 
drill  rows  6  to  8  inches  apart,  but  for  production  of  seed,  planting  in 
rows  3  feet  apart,  with  the  seeds  2  to  3  inches  apart  in  the  row  gives 
better  results.  With  the  row  method  30  to  40  pounds  of  seed  will  be 
required;  when  sown  broadcast  about  90  pounds  of  seed  to  the  acre  will  be 
sufficient. 

When  used  as  food  cowpeas  are  picked  by  hand  or  harvested  with  a 
mowing  machine  and  threshed  in  the  various  ways  mentioned  for  beans. 
Of  course,  they  are  picked  by  hand  when  used  in  the  green-shell  state. 

PEAS 

Peas  are  grown  in  most  home  gardens  and  they  also  enter  into  market 
gardening,  trucking  and  canning.  A  large  part  of  the  commercial  crop  is 
grown  for  canning  and  it  ranks  third  in  importance  of  the  vegetables 
canned,  being  exceeded  in  value  by  tomatoes  and  sweet  corn. 

Importance. — According  to  the  Census  Report  103,686  acres  of  peas, 
were  grown  for  sale  in  the  United  States  in  1919  and  the  farm  value  of  the 
crop  was  $7,164,988.  SHghtly  over  one-half  of  the  total  acreage  was  pro- 
duced in  two  states,  Wisconsin  with  36,742  acres  and  New  York  with 
17,440  acres.  Other  important  states  in  1919  were  California  with  8,246 
acres  and  New  Jersey  with  4,241  acres.  All  of  these  are  important 
canning  states. 

History  and  Taxonomy. — The  pea  {Pisum  sativum  Linn.)  is  probably 
a  native  of  Europe  and  possibly  of  northern  Asia.  Its  culture  goes  back 
to  a  remote  period,  having  been  grown  by  the  ancient  Romans  and 
Egyptians.  Peas  came  to  America  with  the  first  immigrants  and  are  now 
grown  practically  everywhere. 

Dry  peas  are  either  smooth  or  wrinkled,  the  former  type  excels  in 
hardiness,  but  the  latter  is  better  in  flavor.  The  wrinkled  peas  are 
sweeter  and  are  often  called  "Sweet  peas." 

Peas  vary  greatly  in  character  of  vine.  Some  are  dwarf,  some  half- 
dwarf  and  others  tall.  The  shortest  varieties  are  not  much  over  1  foot 
tall,  the  half-dwarf  grow  to  a  height  of  2  to  3  feet  on  rich  soil.  The 
field  pea  has  been  considered  by  some  botanists  as  belonging  to  a  different 
species  from  the  garden  pea  and  was  called  Pisum  arvense,  but  this  dis- 
tinction is  now  generally  abandoned.  It  is,  however,  considered  as  a 
botanical  variety  by  some  authorities  and  is  given  the  name  P.  sativum 
Var.  arvense. 


BEANS  AND  PEAS  355 

Soil  Preferences. — Peas  are  grown  on  a  great  many  kinds  of  soils 
from  the  light  sandy  loams  to  the  heavy  clays.  For  a  very  early  crop 
a  sandy  loam  is  desired,  but  for  large  yields,  where  earliness  is  not  an 
important  factor,  a  well-drained  clay  loam,  or  a  silt  loam  is  preferred. 
Good  drainage  is  essential,  for  the  pea  plant  will  not  thrive  on  soggy  or 
water-soaked  land.  The  soil  should,  however,  be  retentive  of  moisture, 
especially  for  the  late  varieties,  or  for  early  varieties  planted  late  in  the 
spring  or  early  summer. 

Thorough  preparation  is  important  for  peas  as  for  other  vegetables. 
It  is  especially  important  where  the  seed  is  to  be  sown  broadcast  or 
planted  with  a  grain  drill  since  under  this  method  no  cultivation  is  given 
the  crop.  Fall  plowing  is  important  for  the  early  crop  since  planting  is 
often  greatly  delayed  when  the  land  must  be  plowed  in  the  spring.  The 
seed  bed  should  be  well  pulverized  to  the  depth  of  3  or  4  inches.  When 
the  crop  is  grown  for  the  cannery  effort  is  made  to  leave  the  surface 
smooth  by  rolling  either  before  or  after  planting,  or  both,  as  a 
rough,  uneven  surface  interferes  with  the  use  of  the  mower  in  harvesting 
the  peas. 

Fertilizers  and  Manures.— Commercial  fertilizers  are  usually  applied 
to  the  land  for  peas,  the  amount  and' kinds  depending  upon  the  soil  and 
the  purpose  for  which  the  crop  is  grown.  On  light  soils  a  complete  fer- 
tilizer, containing  about  2  per  cent  nitrogen,  8  to  10  per  cent  phosphoric 
acid  and  4  to  8  per  cent  potash,  is  often  applied  at  the  rate  of  500  to 
1,000  pounds  to  the  acre  when  the  crop  is  grown  for  the  general  market. 
When  grown  for  canning  a  large  amount  of  fertilizer  is  seldom  profitable 
even  though  the  yield  is  increased.  In  most  regions  where  peas  are 
grown  for  the  cannery,  the  soil  is  fairly  rich  and  the  crop  is  grown  in 
rotation  with  general  farm  crops  and  only  a  small  amount  of  fertilizer 
is  necessary.  Some  growers  apply  300  to  500  pounds  of  a  fertilizer 
analyzing  1  to  2  per  cent  nitrogen,  8  per  cent  phosphoric  acid  and  4  to  5 
per  cent  potash.  Others  use  only  phosphoric  acid.  Authorities  generally 
agree  that  phosphorus  is  the  element  most  needed. 

Manure  is  seldom  applied  to  the  land  for  peas  although  it  is  quite 
generally  used  in  the  rotation.  A  common  practice  is  to  apply  the 
manure  to  the  crop  preceding  peas  and  this  is  considered  preferable  to 
applying  it  to  the  soil  the  year  the  pea  crop  is  grown.  Fresh  stable 
manure  is  liable  to  produce  a  rank  vine  growth  at  the  expense  of  pods 
and  for  this  reason  it  is  seldom  used  on  peas.  Where  a  clover  sod 
is  turned  under  or  where  a  green-manure  crop  precedes  peas,  manure  is 
not  needed. 

Inoculation. — Considerable  difference  of  opinion  exists  regarding  the 
importance  of  inoculating  pea  seed  with  nitrogen-fixing  bacteria.  Experi- 
ments have  not  given  conclusive  results,  although  it  is  generally  rec- 
ommended that  inoculation  be  given  when  peas  are  to  be  planted  on 


35G  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

new  land.  Field  tests  in  Wisconsin  (48)  show  that  on  a  heavy,  rich  clay 
loam,  slightly  acid  and  cropped  to  peas  for  years,  inoculation  did  not 
increase  the  yield.  On  a  rich,  silt  loam,  unlimed  and  acid,  not  previously 
cropped  to  peas,  inoculation  increased  the  total  yield  of  plants,  of  peas 
and  also  the  percentage  of  nitrogen.  Inoculation  of  neutral,  rich  silt 
loams,  also  gave  favorable  results.  Some  injurious  results  from  inocu- 
lation have  been  reported.  The  injury  was  probably  due  to  the  develop- 
ment of  injurious  organisms  due  to  the  wetting  of  the  seed  in  applying  the 
inoculating  material. 

Planting. — Smooth  peas,  represented  by  the  Alaska,  are  hardy  and  may 
be  planted  as  soon  as  hard  freezes  are  over,  or  as  soon  as  the  land  can  be 
prepared  in  most  sections  of  the  North.  Wrinkled  peas  are  not  so  hardy 
as  the  smooth-seeded  type,  but  they  will  withstand  light  frosts  and  the 
seeds  will  germinate  at  relatively  low  temperatures,  hence  they  may  be 
planted  as  soon  as  hard  frosts  are  past.  None  of  the  types  of  peas  thrive 
during  ver}^  hot  weather,  hence  they  are  grown  as  winter  and  spring  crops 
in  the  South  and  as  spring  and  early  summer  crops  in  most  sections  of  the 
North.  In  a  few  favored  localities  the  crop  does  fairly  well  during  mid- 
summer, although,  even  in  these  regions,  peas  are  not  a  sure  crop.  In  the 
regions  in  which  the  pea  crop  thrives  during  midsummer  the  temperature 
is  relatively  low  and  the  rainfall  relatively  high.  The  climate  in  such 
regions  is  usually  modified  by  high  elevation  or  by  the  presence  of  a 
large  body  of  water. 

For  a  succession  of  edible  green  peas  it  is  necessary  to  make  several 
plantings  at  intervals  of  10  days  to  2  weeks,  or  to  plant  early,  medium 
and  late  varieties  at  about  the  same  time.  It  is  a  common  practice 
to  plant  seed  of  the  Alaska  variety  as  soon  as  the  ground  can  be  worked, 
then  later  to  make  plantings  of  early,  medium  and  late  wrinkled 
varieties,  or  to  make  several  plantings  of  the  same  variety  at  the 
proper  intervals. 

The  depth  of  planting  should  be  determined  by  the  character  of  the  soil 
and  the  moisture  conditions.  On  fairly  moist  clay  soils  a  depth  of  2  or  3 
inches  is  sufficient,  while  on  sandy  soils  a  covering  of  4  inches  is  none 
too  much  when  the  soil  is  fairly  dry. 

The  amount  of  seed  planted  depends  largely  upon  the  method  of 
growing,  but  to  some  extent  also  upon  the  size  of  the  seeds.  When 
planted  in  rows  2  to  3  feet  apart  about  13  2  to  2}^  bushels  are  required 
to  plant  an  acre,  the  larger  amount  being  used  when  planting  in  doubk; 
rows.  When  the  crop  is  planted  with  a  grain  drill  the  usual  rate  of  plant- 
ing is  about  4  bushels  to  the  acre,  athough  it  varies  from  3  to  5.  This 
method  is  almost  universally  used  in  growing  peas  for  the  cannery  and  is 
employed  to  some  extent  for  the  market  crop. 

Planting  by  hand  is  commonly  practiced  in  home  gardens  and  hand 
seed  drills  are  usually  employed  when  planting  small  areas  for  market. 


BEANS  AND  PEAS  357 

For  large  areas  the  grain  drill  is  commonly  used.  By  stopping  up 
alternate  openings  the  rows  are  made  far  enough  apart  for  cultivation 
while  the  vines  are  small. 

Cultivation. — Peas  grown  in  the  home  garden  are  practically  always 
planted  in  rows  and  clean  cultivation  is  given  until  the  vines  interfere 
with  the  operation.  A  large  part  of  the  crop  grown  for  city  markets  is 
also  planted  in  rows  far  enough  apart  to  allow  for  cultivation.  A  small 
percentage  of  the  market  crop  and  practically  all  of  the  canning-crop  peas 
are  sown  so  thickly  that  cultivation  is  not  possible.  On  fairly  clean  land 
cultivation  is  not  necessary  provided  the  planting  is  heavy  enough  to  make 
a  mat  of  vines  over  the  entire  area.  Where  weeds  are  very  troublesome 
either  peas  should  not  be  grown  or  thej-  should  be  planted  so  that  culti- 
vation can  be  given  while  the  plants  are  small. 

Supporting  the  Vines.^Tall-growing  varieties  of  peas  are  usually 
supported  when  grown  in  the  home  garden  and  to  a  very  limited  extent 
in  commercial  plantings.  Brush  stuck  into  the  ground  along  the  row  or 
between  two  rows,  when  the  double-row  method  of  planting  is  followed, 
is  an  old  method  of  supporting  the  vines.  Wire  netting  fastened  to  a  line 
of  stakes,  driven  into  the  ground  along  the  row  or  between  the  double 
rows,  makes  an  ideal  support  for  the  vines.  Three  or  four  lines  of  twine 
fastened  to  small  stakes  make  fairly  good  supports.  This  method  is 
followed  to  some  extent  in  the  South. 

Supporting  the  vines  is  not  as  common  as  it  was  formerly,  even  in 
home  gardens.  In  commercial  pea  growing  supports  have  gone  out  of 
use  almost  entirely  in  the  North.  The  extra  labor  and  expense  do  not 
seem  to  be  justified. 

Varieties. — The  earliest  varieties  of  peas  are  the  smooth-seeded  type, 
and  Alaska  is  by  far  the  most  important  variety  of  this  type.  It  is  poor  in 
quality,  but  it  is  popular  because  of  its  earliness  and  small  size.  As  a 
canning  pea  it  is  grown  to  a  greater  extent  than  all  other  varieties 
combined. 

Of  the  wrinkled  peas,  Gradus,  Thomas  Laxton,  Notts'  Excelsior, 
Blue  Bantam  and  American  Wonder  are  dwarf  or  half-dwarf  early  varieties 
but  not  as  early  as  the  Alaska.  The  dwarf  and  half-dwarf  varieties 
are  more  popular  than  the  tall  varieties  with  home  gardeners  since 
they  do  not  take  up  as  much  space  when  grown  without  supports. 
The  most  popularl  medium  and  late  varieties  are  Telephone,  Telegraph, 
Champion  of  Engand,  Horsford's  Market  Gardener,  Advancer,  Admiral 
and  Surprise.  These  usualh'  produce  a  larger  yield  than  the  early 
varieties. 

A  type  of  pea  grown  for  its  pods  as  well  as  for  the  seeds  is  known  as 
Sugar  pea.  The  pods  are  thicker,  and  larger  than  those  of  the  common 
varieties.  Early  Sugar  and  Mammoth  Sugar  are  the  best  known  varieties 
of  this  type.     The  sugar  pea  is  not  popular  in  this  country. 


358  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

Many  of  the  varieties  mentioned  are  grown  for  the  canning  factory  as 
well  as  for  home  use  and  for  market,  but  the  Alaska  is  by  far  the  most 
important  variety  for  canning.  To  be  a  good  canning  pea  a  variety  (1) 
must  be  productive,  (2)  must  ripen  its  pods  uniformly,  (3)  have  all  pods 
usable  at  one  time,  that  is,  none  must  be  too  ripe  or  too  immature  and 
(4)  must  have  the  seed  green  after  processing.  Quality  is  of  importance 
but  the  variety  must  meet  the  four  requirements  enumerated.  When 
peas  were  picked  by  hand  the  second  and  third  requirements  were  not  so 
important  as  now.  The  viner  a  machine  used  for  shelling  peas,  has 
had  a  decided  influence  on  the  list  of  varieties  used  for  canning. 

Figures  obtained  by  the  Food  Administration  on  canners'  opera- 
tions for  the  year  1917  quoted  by  Shoemaker  (136)  indicate  that  the 
following  varieties  were  used  in  the  percentages  shown: 

Smooth  peas: 

Alaska 55 

Wrinkled  peas: 

Horsford  Market  Garden 18 

Advancer 8 

Little  Gem 1 

Perfection  (Davis) 1 

Admiral 13 

Surprise 2 

All  others 2 

Total,  wrinklod  peas 45 

The  Alaska  holds  its  position  because  it  is  hardier,  a  more  reliable 
cropper  than  the  wrinkled  sorts,  and  probably  because  the  consuming 
public  has  associated  quality  with  small  size.  The  Alaska  is  a  small- 
seeded  variety,  but  it  is  very  inferior  in  quality  to  the  wrinkled  peas. 
There  is  a  tendency  toward  a  relative  increase  of  wrinkled  peas  because 
the  public  is  becoming  educated  as  to  quality  in  canned  peas. 

Diseases. — The  most  important  diseases  of  peas  are  mildew,  leaf- 
and  pod-spot,  stem-blight  and  root-rot.  Mildew  appears  as  a  gray- 
white  mold  on  the  leaves  and  pods.  Leaf-  and  pod-spot  appear  as  dark 
spots  on  the  leaves  and  pods  and  spread  to  the  seed.  Root-rot  is  a 
dry  rot  at  and  beneath  the  surface  of  the  soil.  It  causes  a  reduced 
growth  or  even  entire  wilting  of  the  plant. 

Crop  rotation  and  the  use  of  disease-free  seed  are  preventive 
measures  recommended.  No  satisfactory  measures  have  been  found  for 
controlling  these  diseases  after  they  appear. 

Pea  Aphis. — The  pea  aphis  is  the  only  serious  insect  pest  affecting 
the  growing  crop  of  peas.  This  insect  is  one  of  the  larger  species  of 
plant  lice.  It  is  pea-green  in  color.  It  attacks  the  young  vines,  the 
insects  gathering  in  clusters  near  the  tips  and  sapping  the  life  out  of  the 
plants.     Spraying  with  nicotine  sulphate,  to  which  whale  oil  soap  has 


BEANS  AND  PEAS 


359 


been  added  is  recommended,  but  it  has  not  been  found  practicable  on  a 
commercial  scale.  Planting  early  so  that  the  crop  is  mature  before  the 
lice  become  abundant,  is  the  surest  way  to  avoid  loss. 

Pea  Weevil  {Bruchus  pisorum). — The  pea  weevil  is  a  serious  enemy 
of  the  field  and  garden  pea.  It  is  now  found  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the 
world,  but  does  comparatively  little  damage  in  the  colder  portions  of 
Europe  and  North  America.  The  eggs  are  deposited  on  the  surface  of 
the  pods.  In  the  vicinity  of  Washington,  D.  C,  a  considerable  portion 
of  the  weevils  mature  and  leave  the  seeds  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
summer,  but  farther  north  and  in  high  altitudes  the  adult  remains  in 
the  seed  until  the  following  spring.  The  weevil  passes  the  winter  in 
the  adult  stage,  either  in  secluded  spots  in  fields  and  buildings  or  in  the 
pea  itself.  The  weevil  has  only  one  generation  a  year  and  does  not 
reproduce  in  dry  seed. 

Cleaning  up  the  refuse  in  the  field  helps  to  reduce  the  number  of 
beetles.  Fumigation  with  carbon  disulphid  will  destroy  the  weevils  in 
the  stored  peas. 

Cost  of  Production. — The  cost  of  producing  peas  varies  between  wide 
limits  and  there  is  very  little  accurate  data  available  on  the  subject. 
Norton  (109)  has,  however,  reported  on  a  study  made  on  canning-factory 
peas  grown  in  New  York  State  in  1920.  Records  were  secured  on 
262  farms  growing  1,468  acres,  with  an  average  yield  of  2,246  pounds 
to  the  acre.     The  data  is  given  in  Table  XLIX. 

Table  XLIX. — Average  Cost  of  Producing  an  Acre  of  Peas  on  262  New  York 
Farms  Growing  1,468  Acres  in  1920 

(Table  5  Cornell  Bull.  412) 


Item 


Quantity 
per  acre 


Cost  per 
acre 


Per  cent  of 
total  cost 


Seed 

Fertilizer 

Manure  charged  to  peas 

Lime  charged  to  peas 

Labor  growing  peas : 

Human 

Horse 

Use  of  equipment 

Use  of  tractor 

Use  of  automobile  and  truck . 
Miscellaneous  growing  expenses. 

Interest  on  growing  costs 

Use  of  land 


Total  growing  cost. 


4.0  bu. 
164.0  lbs. 
2 . 8  tons 
52.0  lbs. 

15.8  hrs. 

37.5  hrs. 

37.5  hrs. 

0.3  hr. 


$15.71 
2.82 
5.66 
0.10 

6.93 
9.18 
3.07 
0.61 
0.03 
0.05 
0.61 
8.95 

$53.72 


22.0 
3.9 

7.8 
0.1 


12.7 
4.3 

0.8 

0.1 

0.8 

12.4 

74.5 


360 


VEGETABLE  CROPS 


T.xBLE  XLIX. — Average  Cost  of  Producing  an  Acre  of  Peas  on  262  New  York 
Farms  Growing  1,468  Acres  in  1920 — Continued 

{Table  r,  Cornell  Bull.  4V2) 


Item 

Quantity 
per  acre 

Cost  per     1 
acre 

Per  cent  of 
total  cost 

Labor  harvesting  peas : 

Human                                   

21.8  hrs. 
26.2  hrs. 
26.2  his. 



] 

$  9.10 
6.43       1 
2.16 
0.17 
0.36       ' 
0.20 

12.6 

Horse   

8.9 
3.0 

Use  of  automobile  truck  and  tractor 

0.2 

Miscellaneous  harvesting  expenses 

0.5 

Interest  on  harvesting  cost.s                       .  . 

0.3 

$18.42 

25.5 

$72.14 
2.73 

100.0 

3.8 

Net  cost  of  shelled  peas 

$69.41 

96.2 

Shelled  peas  sold  to  factory 

1.1 23  tons 

$90.34 
$80.44 
$61.81 

The  average  yield  of  peas  per  acre  on  the  262  farms,  from  which 
records  were  secured  in  1920,  was  greater  than  the  average  normal 
yield  for  a  period  of  years.  Where  the  yield  of  peas  was  less  than  1,800 
pounds  to  the  acre  (81  farms,  408  acres),  with  an  average  yield  of  1,492 
pounds  per  acre  the  average  cost  per  acre  was  $66.92  and  the  average 
cost  per  ton  was  $86.96.  With  yields  between  1,800  and  2,500  pounds  per 
acre,  averaging  2,138  pounds  (101  farms,  564  acres),  the  cost  was  $72.91 
per  acre  and  $65.41  per  ton.  Where  the  yield  was  2,500  pounds  or  more 
to  the  acre  (80  farms,  496  acres),  averaging  2,988  pounds  the  cost  per 
acre  was  $75.71  per  acre  and  $48.66  per  ton.  The  average  return  per 
hour  of  human  labor  was  $0.31,  $0.83  and  $1.59  respectively. 

Norton  (109)  shows  that  as  the  acreage  of  peas  per  farm  increased 
the  cost  of  production  per  acre  and  per  ton  decreased.  The  acres  grown 
per  farm  did  not  affect  the  cost  per  acre  before  harvest,  but  the  cost 
of  harvesting  was  considerably  less  on  farms  growing  larger  acreages: 

This  was  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  these  farms  had  higher  yields  than  the 
farms  in  the  other  groups.  Part  of  this  lower  cost  is  due  to  the  larger  acreages 
grown  on  farms  nearer  to  the  viner. 

The  larger  yield  per  acre  secured  on  the  farms  growing  the  larger 
acreages  was  probably  one  of  the  chief  reasons  why  peas  were  so  exten- 


BEANS  AND  PEAS 


301 


sively  grown.     Table  L  shows  the  relation  between  the  acres  of  peas  per 
farm  and  cost  of  production. 

Table  L. — Relation  between  Acres  of  Peas  per  Farm  and  Cost  of  Production, 
262  Farms,  1920 


(Table  35  Cornell  Btdl 

.  412) 

Number 

of 

farms 

Average 
number 
of  acres 
per  farm 

per  acre, 
lb. 

Cost  per  acre 

Total  cost 

Acres  of  peas  per  farm 

Grow- 
ing 

Harvest- 
ing 

Per 
acre 

Per 
ton 

distance 

to  viner, 

mi. 

162 
73 

27 

262 

3.2 

7.2 

15.4 

5.6 

2,136 
2,274 
2,346 

$55 
53 
54 

$54 

$21 
19 
15 

$18 

$76 
72 
69 

$72 

$71 
63 
59 

$64 

2.3 

6-10 

Over  10 

2.2 
1.5 

All  farms          

2,246 

2.0 

Harvesting. — Peas  grown  for  home  use  and  for  the  general  market 
are  picked  by  hand  and  this  is  the  most  expensive  operation  connected 
with  the  growing  and  handhng  of  the  crop.  Growers  estimate  that  the 
cost  of  harvesting  the  crop  is  about  one-half  of  the  total  cost  of  produc- 
tion. In  other  words,  the  cost  of  picking  equals  the  combined  costs  of 
seed,  preparation  of  the  soil,  fertilizers,  manures,  use  of  land,  and  planting. 

In  picking  peas  by  hand  it  is  the  practice  of  some  growers  to  make  two 
or  three  pickings,  while  others  make  only  one  picking.  In  the  latter 
case  the  vines  are  pulled  and  all  the  filled  pods  are  picked  off.  It  costs 
less  to  pick  an  acre  of  peas  by  the  latter  method  but  the  quality  of  the 
product  is  better  and  the  yield  higher  when  two  or  more  pickings  are 
made. 

Peas  for  the  cannery  are  harvested  with  a  mowing  machine.  The  vines 
are  cut  as  near  the  ground  as  possible.  They  are  then  loaded  onto 
wagons  and  hauled  to  a  viner  where  the  peas  are  shelled  and  separated 
from  the  vines  and  pods  by  the  use  of  machinery.  Mowing  machines  are 
often  equipped  with  special  devices  which  lift  the  vines  so  that  they  can 
be  cut  close  to  the  soil.  These  vine  lifters  are  large-fingered  attach- 
ments which  are  placed  on  the  cutting  bar.  Some  machines  are  equipped 
with  "swathers"  or  "windrowers"  which  roll  the  vines  to  the  center  of 
the  swath.  A  hay  loader  may  be  used  in  loading  the  vines  from 
the  windrow. 

The  time  for  harvesting  peas  is  determined  largely  by  the  appear- 
ance of  the  pods.  These  should  be  well-filled  with  young,  tender  peas, 
changing  in  color  from  a  dark  to  light  green.  It  is  the  aim  to  harvest 
the  peas  while  they  are  still  in  prime  condition  but  without  sacrificing  yield. 
If  harvested  too  early  the  yield  is  hght  and  if  delayed  too  long  the  quality 
is  poor  although  the  yield  is  heavy. 


302  VEGETABLE  CHOPS 

A  yield  of  -1^  to  1  ton  of  shelled  peas  to  the  acre  is  considered  fairly 
satisfactory.  The  average  yield  per  acre  in  the  United  States  was  1,600 
pounds,  2,000  pounds,  1,G00  pounds  and  2,000  pounds  in  1917,  1918,  1919 
and  1920  respectively.  As  a  rule  the  yield  of  smooth  peas  is  smaller 
than  that  of  the  wrinkled  varieties. 

Packing  for  Market. — Peas  are  packed  mostly  in  baskets  or  hampers 
for  shipment  to  distant  markets.  The  round  stave  basket,  holding  one 
bushel  is  becoming  popular  as  a  market  package  in  some  sections.  Some 
shippers  prefer  a  smaller  package,  such  as  the  16-quart  hamper.  Burlap 
bags  were  used  to  a  large  extent  in  New  York,  but  they  are  not  satis- 
factory containers  and  their  use  has  been  discontinued.  The  pods  were 
often  badly  bruised  in  the  bags  and  then  decay  set  in  with  the  result 
that  the  peas  often  reached  the  market  in  a  heated,  decayed  condition. 

Peas  are  shipped  by  express  or  by  fast  freight.  When  shipped  long 
distances  refrigerator  cars  should  be  used  as  the  peas  heat  quite  readily 
and  deteriorate  in  quality  and  appearance. 


CHAPTER  XXV 

SOLANACEOUS  FRUITS 

Tomato  Pepper 

Eggplant  Husk  Tomato  (Physalis) 

The  solanaceous  fruits,  tomato,  eggplant,  pepper  and  husk  tomato 
all  belong  to  the  same  botanical  family,  Solanaceae.  All  of  these  are 
tender  plants  grown  as  annuals  and  produced  for  their  fruits.  The 
methods  of  culture  for  all  of  them  are  similar.  They  are  grown  from  seed 
sown  in  a  special  seed  bed,  usually  under  cover  and  are  often  transplanted 
prior  to  setting  in  the  garden  or  field.  From  the  standpoint  of  both  the 
relationship  and  cultural  requirements  they  are  grouped  together  for 
discussion. 

TOMATO 

The  tomato  is  one  of  the  most  popular  vegetables,  as  well  as  one  of  the 
most  important.  It  is  grown  in  nearly  all  home  gardens,  and  by  a 
large  percentage  of  market  gardeners  and  truck  growers.  It  is  produced 
as  a  forcing  crop  in  greenhouses  of  the  North  at  the  same  time  it  is  being 
grown  in  the  open  in  Florida.  As  a  canning  crop  it  takes  first  rank  among 
the  vegetables. 

Few  products  lend  themselves  to  as  great  a  variety  of  uses  as  the 
tomato.  Carver  (21)  gives  115  ways  of  preparing  the  tomato  for  the 
table.  It  is  used  cooked  and  raw,  and  is  made  into  soups,  salads,  con- 
serves, pickles,  catsups,  sauces  and  many  other  products.  It  is  served 
baked,  stewed,  fried,  and  as  a  sauce  on  various  foods. 

Statistics  of  Production. — The  Bureau  of  the  Census  gives  the  acreage 
of  tomatoes  grown  for  sale  in  the  United  States  in  1919  as  316,399  acres 
and  the  value  $38,675,496.  The  average  value  per  acre  was  $122, 
which  is  considerably  above  the  average.  Over  75  per  cent  of  the  acreage 
of  tomatoes  grown  in  the  United  States  in  1919  was  produced  in  10  states 
as  shown  in  Table  LI. 

A  large  part  of  the  crop  in  all  of  these  states  except  Florida,  was 
grown  for  the  cannery.  The  high  value  per  acre  in  Florida  is  due  to  the 
fact  that  the  crop  is  grown  and  marketed  during  the  winter  and  spring 
when  the  price  is  high.  The  low  value  per  acre  in  Maryland,  Delaware 
and  Virginia  was  due  to  very  low  yields  in  1919.  Disease  was  very  serious 
in  these  states  and  in  New  Jersey  in  1919  and  the  yields  were  much  below 
the  average. 

363 


364 


VEGETABLE  CROPS 


Table  LI. — Ackeage,  Total  Value  and  Value  per  Acre  of  Tomatoes  Grown 
IN  the  Ten  Leading  Producing  States  in  1919 


State 


Acres 
harvested 


Value  of 
product 


Average  value 
per  acre 


Maryland. .  . . 
New  Jersey .  . 
California. . .  . 
Delaware .... 

Virginia 

Indiana 

Florida 

New  York .  .  . 

Ohio 

Missouri 

United  States 


58,083 
36,986 
31,410 
22,797 
22,380 
20,790 
18,089 
13,417 
10,870 
10,346 
316,399 


I  4,286,591 
3,803,193 
3,579,115 
1,213,575 
1,689,686 
1,990,374 
4,103,929 
2,378,858 
2,154,259 
1,099,618 

38,675,496 


$  74 

103 

114 

53 

75 

96 

227 

177 

198 

106 

122 


History. — The  tomato  is  a  native  of  tropical  America  and  is  supposed 
to  have  been  eaten  by  wild  tribes  of  Mexico  who  called  it  tomati.  The 
name  tomato  is  of  South  American  origin  and  is  derived  from  the  Aztec 
word  zitomate,  or  zitotomate  and  is  applied  to  the  fruit  of  both  the 
common  tomato  and  that  of  the  Husk  tomato.  Both  of  these  types 
were  grown  and  highly  prized  by  the  natives  before  the  discovery  of 
America. 

According  to  Sturtevant  (157)  the  earliest  mention  of  the  tomato 
in  literature  was  by  Matthiolus  in  Italy  in  1554.  It  is  probable  that 
they  were  known  in  Germany,  France,  Belgium  and  England  prior  to 
1600. .  From  descriptions  and  cuts  found  in  old  literature  it  seems 
fairly  certain  that  large,  smooth  fruits,  similar  to  some  of  the  varieties 
now  grown,  were  known  long  before  they  came  into  general  use  in  America. 
It  is  probable  that  they  were  cultivated  in  Europe  mainly  for  ornament 
and  as  a  curiosity  until  about  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
Miller  (Sturtevant's  notes)  reports  that  they  were  used  in  soups  in 
England  during  the  latter  half  of  the  eighteenth  century. 

The  first  mention  of  the  tomato  as  being  grown  for  culinary  use  in 
America  was  by  Jefferson  in  1781.  McMahon  (94),  1806,  speaks  of  the 
tomato  as  being  held  in  high  esteem  for  culinary  purposes  in  America. 
In  1812  tomatoes  were  regularly  quoted  in  the  market  of  New  Orleans. 
Thorburn  (Gard.  Kal.  1817)  gives  cultural  directions  for  growing  the 
tomato.  It  was  not  until  about  1835  that  the  tomato  became  quite 
generally  cultivated  for  culinary  purposes  in  America  and  even  at  that 
time  there  was  considerable  prejudice  against  its  use.  The  tomato 
growing  industry  made  rapid  strides  during  the  latter  half  of  the  nine- 
teenth century. 


SOLAN ACEOUS  FRUITS  365 

Taxonomy. — The  tomato  belongs  to  the  nightshade  or  Solanaceae 
family  and  to  the  genus  Ly coper sicum.  The  genus  comprises  a  few  species 
of  annual,  or  short-lived  perennial,  herbaceous  plants.  The  many 
branches  are  procumbent  or  partially"  erect.  The  stems  are  round,  soft, 
brittle,  and  hairy  when  young,  but  become  angular,  hard  and  almost 
woody  when  old.  The  leaves  are  alternate,  5  to  15  inches  long,  odd- 
pinnate,  with  seven  to  nine  short-stemmed  leaflets.  The  flowers  are 
borne  in  clusters,  located  on  the  stem  between  the  nodes.  The  flowers 
are  small;  corolla  deeply  five-cleft,  yellow,  the  petals  recurving  and 
broadly  lanceolate;  calyx  with  five  long,  linear  or  lanceolate  sepals, 
which  are  shorter  than  the  petals  at  first,  but  increase  in  size  as  the  fruits 
mature.  The  stamens  are  five  in  number  and  are  borne  in  the  throat 
of  the  corolla;  anthers  large,  borne  on  short  filaments.  The  fruit  is  a 
two  to  many-celled  berry  with  fleshy  placentae  and  many  small  kidney- 
shaped  seeds  covered  with  short  stiff  hairs. 

Most  authorities  recognize  two  distinct  species,  L.  esculentum  and 
L.  pimpinellifolium,  with  four  or  five  botanical  varieties  under  the 
former.  Others  believe  that  the  pear  and  cherry  tomatoes  represent 
true  species  rather  than  botanical  varieties  belonging  to  the  species, 
L.  esculentum,  Tracy  (167)  gives  the  following  as  true  species,  L.  pim- 
pinellifolium, currant  or  grape  tomato;  L.  cerasiforme,  cherry  tomato; 
L.  pyriforme,  pear  tomato;  and  L.  esculentum,  the  common  garden 
tomato  including  nearly  all  varieties  grown  in  the  United  States.  Bailey 
(6)  classified  tomatoes  into  two  species  L.  pimpinellifolium  and  L. 
esculentum    with    the   following   botanical    varieties   under   the    latter: 

var.  commune,  Common  tomato 

var.  grandifolium.  Large-leaved  tomato 

var.  validum.  Upright  tomato 

var.  cerasiforme,  Cherry  tomato;  and  var.  pyriforme,  Pear  tomato. 

Whether  the  types  known  as  pear  and  cherry  tomatoes  are  species, 
or  botanical  varieties  the  fruits  are  readily  distinguished  from  the 
common  garden  tomato. 

Soil  Preferences. — The  tomato  is  grown  on  nearly  all  types  of  soils 
and  there  is  difference  of  opinion  as  to  which  type  is  most  desirable 
even  under  the  same  climatic  conditions.  McCue  and  Pelton  (92) 
report  on  a  questionnaire  sent  to  a  large  number  of  farmers  in  Delaware. 
Out  of  273  rephes  127  farmers  preferred  a  clay  loam,  105  a  sandy  loam,  18 
any  good  rich  soil,  7  no  preference,  7  prefered  a  loam,  6  clay  and  3 
prefered  sandy  land.  For  an  early  crop  a  light  soil  such  as  a  fine  sand, 
or  a  sandy  loam  is  preferred,  while  for  the  main  crop,  where  large  yields 
are  the  most  important,  a  rich  sandj^  loam,  or  a  good  clay  loam  is  desired 
by  most  growers.     Some  authorities  consider  a  rich  sandy  loam,  with  a 


36G  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

well-drained  clay  subsoil,  as  the  best  soil  for  tomatoes  even  where  large 
yield  is  the  prime  consideration. 

Authorities  are  agreed  that  a  w(>ll-draine(l  soil  is  essential  for  high 
production.  It  is  essential,  however,  that  the  soil  be  retentive  of  moisture, 
especially  where  the  crop  is  grown  throughout  the  main  portion  of  the 
growing  season,  as  in  nearly  all  sections  of  the  North. 

Thorough  preparation  of  the  soil  is  important  for  the  tomato  as  for 
most  other  vegetable  crops. 

Fertilizers  and  Manures. — The  kinds  and  amounts  of  fertilizers 
and  manures  that  may  be  used  with  profit  depend  upon  the  character 
and  richness  of  the  soil,  the  length  of  the  growing  season  and  the  purpose 
for  which  the  crop  is  grown.  On  fairly  rich  soil  little,  or  no,  fertilizer 
need  be  applied,  although  a  light  application  of  phosphorus  usually  is 
profitable.  Where  the  growing  season  is  short  a  small  amount  of  com- 
plete fertilizer,  even  on  rich  soil,  is  advisable  in  order  to  hasten  ripening. 
The  nitrogen  should  be  in  a  readily  available  form  to  give  the  plants  a 
good  start.  The  mineral  elements  are  important  in  hastening  ripening. 
Large  applications  of  fertilizers  may  be  profitable  in  growing  tomatoes 
for  an  early  market  and  unprofitable  when  growing  for  a  late  market 
or  for  the  cannery.  Dacy  (36)  found  that  on  a  shaly,  clay  loam  in  West 
Virginia  400  pounds  of  a  high-grade  fertilizer  gave  greater  net  profits 
than  600  pounds  of  the  same  material.  Rosa  (125)  shows  that  250 
pounds  of  a  5-8-7  fertilizer,  and  250  pounds  of  16  per  cent  acid  phosphate 
gave  higher  net  gains  than  8  tons  of  manure,  although  the  yield  on  the 
manure  plats  slightly  exceeded  the  yield  from  either  of  the  other  two 
treatments.  The  results  reported  by  Rosa  were  secured  in  ten  tests  in 
Missouri  in  1919.  These  covered  a  wide  range  of  conditions.  Results 
of  5  years'  experimental  work  in  Ohio  (163)  show  larger  yields  from  800 
pounds  of  14  per  cent  acid  phosphate,  100  pounds  muriate  of  potash  and 
320  pounds  of  nitrate  of  soda  than  from  16  tons  of  manure,  and  about  the 
same  yield  as  16  tons  of  manure  supplemented  with  400  pounds  of  acid 
phosphate.  (See  Chapter  III).  The  net  returns  were  considerably 
higher  from  the  fertilizer  treatment  than  from  the  manure.  McCue  and 
Pelton  (92)  report  that  1,200  pounds  of  a  4-8-10  fertilizer  produced  a 
larger  yield  and  a  considerably  larger  percentage  of  ripe  fruit  than  20 
tons  of  manure.  The  average  yields  for  4  years  1909  to  1912  were 
10,979  pounds  per  acre  with  no  fertilizers,  17,339  with  600  pounds  4-8-10, 
23,279  with  600  pounds  of  4-8-10  and  20  tons  of  manure,  17,887  with 
250  pounds  of  acid  phosphate  and  120  pounds  of  muriate  of  potash, 
13,342  with  250  pounds  acid  phosphate  alone,  25,886  with  1,200  pounds  of 
4-8-10  and  15,248  pounds  of  tomatoes  with  120  pounds  of  muriate  of 
potash.  The  nitrogen  in  the  complete  fertilizer  was  in  tankage.  In  this 
experiment  in  Delaware  all  three  of  the  important  elements  were  of 
value.     Potash  alone  increased  the  yield  more  than  phosphorus  alone. 


SOLANACEOUS  FRUITS  367 

Practically  all  authorities  agree  that  phosphorus  is  the  element  most 
needed  on  a  large  percentage  of  soils.  Most  of  the  experiments  show  the 
importance  of  this  element,  although  on  the  lighter  soils  both  nitrogen 
and  potash  are  usually  needed,  and  generally  are  profitable  when  used  in 
moderate  amounts. 

Rosa  (125  and  126)  recommends  for  Missouri  a  2-12-2  fertilizer  for 
poor  soils,  a  3-12-0  mixture  for  soils  of  medium  fertility  and  16  per  cent 
acid  phosphate  alone  for  rich  soils,  or  those  on  which  manure  or  legumes 
has  been  recently  used.  Brown  (18)  recommends  500  to  1,000  pounds 
of  2-12-6  fertilizer  for  tomato  soils  in  Indiana.  Dacy  (36)  suggests  an 
application  of  400  pounds  of  a  3-8-10  fertilizer  for  the  shaly,  clay  soils  of 
West  Virginia.  McCue  and  Pelton  (92)  recommend  a  fertilizer  contain- 
ing 3  to  5  per  cent  nitrogen,  5  to  7  per  cent  phosphoric  acid  and  8  to  10 
per  cent  potash.  They  state,  however,  that  the  average  amount  of 
fertilizer  used  per  acre  in  Delaware  is  550  pounds  of  a  2-8-5  mixture. 
"Stable  manure  is  most  economicall}^  applied  to  the  land  for  some  other 
crop." 

Nearl}^  all  of  the  above  recommendations  were  made  as  a  result  of 
fertilizer  experiments  carried  on  in  the  various  states.  It  should  be  borne 
in  mind  that  the  experiments  were  conducted  on  different  types  of  soils 
and  under  different  systems  of  farming  and  these  account,  in  a  large 
measure,  for  the  divergent  recommendations. 

On  hght  soils  a  complete  fertilizer  should  be  used  in  amounts  ranging 
from  400  to  1,200  pounds  depending  upon  the  richness  of  the  soil  and  the 
purpose  for  which  the  crop  is  grown.  When  tomatoes  are  grown  for  the 
cannery,  in  rotation  with  general  farm  crops,  the  fertilizers  suggested  by 
Rosa  should  give  profitable  returns  when  applied  at  the  rate  of  200  to 
500  pounds  per  acre.  Manure,  except  in  small  quantities,  is  not  to  be 
recommended  on  account  of  the  expense  and  because  it  can  be  more 
profitably  used  on  other  crops.  It  would  ordinarily  be  better  to  apply 
manure  to  the  crop  preceding  the  tomatoes  rather  than  direct  to  the 
tomato  crop.  Large  quantities  of  fresh  manure  delay  ripening  which  is 
an  important  factor  in  the  North. 

In  general  the  best  time  to  apply  fertilizers  is  before  the  crop  is  planted. 
Rosa  (125)  gives  the  results  of  experiments  conducted  for  three  years  in 
Missouri  and  in  each  of  these  years  a  higher  yield  was  secured  from  apply- 
ing the  fertilizer  before  setting  the  plants  than  when  appKed  10  days  after 
planting.  Applying  in  the  row  gave  a  slight  increase  over  broadcasting 
the  fertilizer.  With  small  amounts  (less  than  500  pounds)  applying  in 
the  row  may  be  the  best  method  to  use,  but  for  larger  amounts  broadcast- 
ing would  probably  give  as  good  results. 

Vegetation  and  Reproduction. — In  agricultural  and  botanical  literature 
statements  are  frequently  made  to  the  effect  that  highly  vegetative 
plants  are  unfruitful.     Many  references  deal  with  a  relationship  between 


368  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

plant  responses  and  the  availabilit}^  of  the  raw  materials.  Klebs  (84)  has 
brought  together  the  results  of  many  investigations  which  show  that  the 
environmental  conditions  largely  determine  whether  a  plant  shall  remain 
in  a  vegetative  condition  or  become  sexually  reproductive.  The  con- 
trolling factors  were  found  to  be  a  decrease  in  the  supply  of  raw 
materials  (especially  nitrogenous  materials)  and  an  increase  in  the 
intensity  of  light. 

Kraus  and  Kraybill  (86)  have  reported  results  of  a  careful  study  of  the 
problem  of  vegetation  and  reproduction  in  the  tomato.  They  used  chem- 
ical analysis  to  reveal  the  internal  conditions  which  correspond  to  certain 
experimental  treatments,  and  to  the  observed  behavior  of  the  plants. 

In  the  introduction  to  their  paper  the  following  appears: 

Four  general  conditions  of  the  relation  of  nitrates,  carbohydrates,  and  mois- 
ture within  the  plant  itself,  and  the  response  apparently  correlated  therewith, 
will  be  discussed.     These  are: 

1.  Though  there  be  present  an  abundance  of  moisture  and  mineral  nutrients, 
including  nitrates,  yet  without  an  available  carbohydrate  supply  vegetation  is 
weakened  and  the  plants  are  non-fruitful. 

2.  An  abundance  of  moisture  and  mineral  nutrients,  especially  nitrates, 
coupled  with  an  available  carbohydrate  supply,  makes  for  increased  vegetation, 
barrenness  and  sterility. 

3.  A  relative  decrease  of  nitrates  in  proportion  to  the  carbohydrates  makes 
for  an  accumulation  of  the  latter,  and  also  for  fruitfulness,  fertility  and  lessened 
vegetation. 

4.  A  further  reduction  of  nitrates  without  inhibiting  a  possible  increase  of 
carbohydrates,  makes  for  a  suppression  both  of  vegetation  and  fruitfulness. 

Among  the  conclusions  of  Krause  and  Kraybill  the  following  may  be 
quoted: 

Plants  grown  with  an  abundant  supply  of  available  nitrogen  and  the  oppor- 
tunity for  carbohydrate  synthesis,  are  vigorously  vegetative  and  unfruitful. 
Such  plants  are  high  in  moisture,  total  nitrogen,  nitrate  nitrogen,  and  low  in 
total  dry  matter,  free-reducing  substances,  sucrose  and  polysaccharides. 

Plants  grown  with  an  abundant  supply  of  nitrogen  and  then  transferred  and 
grown  with  a  very  low  supply  of  available  nitrogen  arc  very  weakly  vegetative 
and  unfruitful.  As  compared  with  the  vegetative  plants,  they  are  very  much 
lower  in  moisture  and  total  nitrogen  and  are  lacking  in  nitrate  nitrogen;  they 
are  much  higher  in  total  dry  matter,  free-reducing  substances,  sucrose,  and 
polysaccharides. 

Whatever  the  conditions  under  which  a  plant  has  been  grown,  considering 
the  whole  plant  as  a  unit,  increased  total  nitrogen  and  more  particularly  increased 
nitrate  nitrogen  are  associated  with  increased  moisture  and  decreased  free-reduc- 
ing substances,  sucrose,  polysaccharides,  and  total  dry  matter. 

Fruitfulness  is  associated  neither  with  highest  nitrates  nor  highest  carbo- 
hydrates but  with  a  condition  of  balance  between  them. 


SOLANACEOUS  FRUITS  369 

litick  of  fruit  development  is  not  alone  due  to  the  lack  of  pollination  or 
fertilization.  The  flowers  may  fall  soon  after  pollination  (markedly  vegetative 
plants)  or  remain  attached  for  many  daj^s  without  development  of  the  fruit 
(markedly  non-vegetative  plants). 

Stems  without  storage  starch  at  the  base  when  cut  off  close  to  the  surface 
of  the  soil,  fail  to  sprout  but  decay  quickly,  whereas  those  with  large  storage 
produce  new  shoots.  Accompanying  such  growth  there  is  a  total  or  complete 
disappearance  of  the  starch,  depending  upon  the  relative  amount  of  growth  made 
and  the  available  nitrogen  supply.  If  the  latter  is  abundant  vegetative  exten- 
sion is  relatively  great;  if  not,  such  extension  soon  ceases  and  starch  is  again 
stored  in  the  new  growth. 

The  available  carbohydrates  or  the  possibility  for  their  manufacture  or 
supply,  constitute  as  much  of  a  limiting  factor  in  growth  as  the  available  nitrogen 
and  moisture  supply.  When  the  opportunity  for  carbohydrate  manufacture 
within  the  plant  itself  is  greatly  reduced  or  eliminated  even  though  there  is  a 
relative  abundance  of  moisture  and  available  nitrogen,  vegetation  is  decreased. 
But  when  there  is  a  carbohydrate  reserve  within  the  tissues  under  the  same 
conditions  of  nitrogen  and  moisture  supply,  growth  is  active.  Very  large  pro- 
portional reserves  of  carbohydrates  to  moisture  and  nitrate  supply  also  accom- 
pany decreased  vegetation. 

Work  (186)  has  studied  the  effect  of  measured  applications  of  nitrate 
upon  the  performance  and  upon  the  nitrogen  and  carbohydrate  con- 
tent of  tomato  plants  grown  in  quartz  sand.  Using  boxes  of  about  1}>^ 
cubic  feet  capacity  for  single  plants  he  found  that  32  grams  of  nitrate 
of  soda  in  a  single  application  gave  maximum  results  in  both  vegetation 
and  fruitfulness.  A  given  amount  of  nitrate  in  successive  small  portions 
was  more  effective  than  when  applied  in  one  application. 

Treatments  of  over  32  grams  per  box  did  not  result  in  rapid  decline 
of  plant  activity.  His  data  indicate  that  injury  from  heavy  appHcations 
of  nitrate  is  due  to  decrease  in  availabihty  of  soil  moisture  rather  than  to 
toxic  action. 

In  his  experiments  he  did  not  find  it  possible  to  induce  a  condition 
of  heavy  vegetation  and  unfruitfulness  by  means  of  large  applications  of 
nitrate  of  soda.  Applications  up  to  about  9  ounces  per  plant  did  not 
bring  about  such  conditions,  nor  did  one-third  well-rotted  manure,  either 
when  mixed  with  quartz  sand  or  with  soil.  A  nitrogen  content  of  .3  to  .4 
per  cent  in  the  leaves  was  associated  with  vigorous  vegetative  growth  and 
heavy  fruiting;  a  content  between  .2  and  .3  with  intermediate  perform- 
ance, and  less  than  .2  per  cent  with  a  check  in  both  vegetation  and 
reproduction. 

He  found  no  apparent  relation  between  the  amount  of  nitrate  applied 
to  the  soil  and  the  carbohydrate  content  of  the  plant,  except  where  growth 
was  checked  by  lack  of  available  nitrogen.  There  was  no  apparent 
relation  between  nitrogen  content  and  carbohydrate  content  except  in 
starved  plants,  where  the  former  was  low  and  the  latter  usually  high. 


370  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

Among  the  conclusions  given  by  Work  tlie  following  may  be 
of  interest : 

There  is  no  indication  that  high  or  low  carbohydrate  content  have  inhibited 
cither  vegetative  or  reproductive  activities  of  the  plants  in  these  experiments. 

The  concentration  of  carbohydrates  in  a  plant  is  the  resultant  of  the  balance 
between  the  processes  of  manufacture  and  the  many  processes  of  use.  The 
data  of  these  experiments  suggest  that  so  long  as  the  rate  of  manufacture  is 
sufficient  for  current  needs,  the  amount  present  does  not  condition  the  process 
of  vegetation  and  fruition. 

Kraus  and  Kraybill  did  not  express  their  conclusions  in  terms  of 
a  mathematical  ratio  of  carbon  to  nitrogen,  but  Crocker  (33)  did  so 
interpret  them.  The  results  reported  by  Work  do  not  support  this  inter- 
pretation, but  suggest  rather  that  nitrogen  and  carbohydrates  be  regarded 
as  distinct  limiting  factors.  Performance  is  to  be  related  rather  to  the 
available  amount  of  the  single  factor  which  is  at  the  moment  in  minimo. 
From  his  results  it  appears  that  the  carbohydrate  requirement  is  amply 
provided  for  in  any  plant  that  has  enough  nitrogen  for  reasonable  vege- 
tative activity  and  that  the  stored  surplus  in  nitrogen-starved  plants  is 
sufficient  for  renewal  of  growth. 

Growing  Plants. — The  tomato  crop  is  grown  from  plants  started 
in  a  specially  prepared  seed  bed  several  weeks  prior  to  the  time  of  planting 
in  the  garden  or  field.  In  most  sections  of  the  United  States  the  seed  is 
sown  in  greenhouses,  hotbeds  or  cold  frames.  In  the  warmer  sections  of 
the  South  the  plants  are  grown  mainly  under  cloth-covered  frames.  In 
the  colder  sections  of  the  South  and  in  many  regions  of  the  North  hotbeds 
are  used  for  starting  the  plants.  Greenhouses  are  employed  to  a  consider- 
able extent  by  market  gardeners  and  others  who  grow  tomatoes  on  a  large 
scale  in  the  northern  states. 

The  time  for  sowing  the  seed  depends  upon  the  facilities  available, 
the  climatic  conditions,  and  the  purpose  for  which  the  crop  is  grown.  If 
facilities  are  not  available  for  transplanting  the  plants  prior  to  setting  in 
the  field  the  seed  should  be  sown  only  4  to  6  weeks  in  advance  of  field 
planting.  When  left  too  long  in  the  seed  bed  the  plants  usually  get  too 
"leggy"  due  to  crowding.  In  regions  having  a  short  growing  season  the 
seed  is  usually  sown  10  to  12  weeks  before  time  for  outdoor  planting  in 
order  to  have  large  plants.  For  a  very  early  market  crop,  even  in  regions 
having  a  long  growing  season,  early  seed-sowing  is  practiced.  Many 
growers  sow  the  seed  very  early  because  they  believe  that  slow  growth  is 
desirable,  but  experimental  results  indicate  that  this  might  be  overdone. 
Werner  (175)  in  North  Dakota  found  that  plants  grown  from  seed  sown 
February  27  produced  less  ripe  fruit  up  to  August  20  and  less  total  yield 
than  those  grown  from  seed  sown  March  6,  16,  26  and  April  6.  Plants 
kept  too  long  in  the  hotbed  or  greenhouse  under  ordinary  methods  of 


.SOLANACEOUS  FRUITS  371 

growing  cither  get  too  "leggy,"  or  become  too  woody  if  the  growth  is 
checked  sufficiently  to  hold  them  back.  In  cither  case  the  plants  do  not 
make  a  quick  start  when  set  out. 

Tomato  seed  is  usually  planted  in  rows  about  2  inches  apart  in  flats, 
or  in  rows  4  to  6  inches  apart  in  a  hotbed,  cold  frame  or  greenhouse. 
If  the  plants  are  not  to  be  transplanted  prior  to  setting  in  the  field  they 
should  be  thinned  to  stand  an  inch  or  two  apart  preferably  the  latter 
distance,  or  even  more  when  they  are  to  remain  in  the  seed  bed  for  several 
weeks.  Most  market  gardeners  and  other  commercial  growers  in  the 
North  transplant  the  seedlings  when  they  reach  a  height  of  about  2  inches, 
spacing  them  about  2  inches  apart  each  way.  The  plants  are  often 
transplanted  a  second  time  when  they  begin  to  crowd,  and,  at  this  trans- 
planting, they  are  spaced  3  by  3  or  4  by  4  inches  apart  each  way,  or  else 
are  put  in  flower  pots,  paper  bands,  veneer  bands  or  tin  cans.  Experi- 
mental results  indicate  that  transplanting  is  of  no  particular  value  if  the 
plants  are  given  the  same  space  without  transplanting.  However,  trans- 
planting once  is  usually  necessary  to  economize  on  greenhouse  or  hotbed 
space,  but  very  often  the  second  transplanting  may  be  eliminated  to  the 
benefit  of  the  plant  and  result  in  a  saving  of  labor  as  well.  (See  Chapter 
VIII.) 

Experiments  indicate  that  plants  grown  from  seed  sown  direct  to 
pots  or  plant  bands  produce  as  large,  or  even  larger  yields  than  when  trans- 
planted once  or  twice. 

Boyle  (15)  conducted  experiments  for  3  years  in  Indiana  to  deter- 
mine the  best  and  most  profitable  methods  of  growing  tomato  plants. 
The  methods  tested  were  as  follows: 

Plat  1.  Seed  sown  in  an  outdoor  seed  bed  in  rows  18  inches  apart  and  thiinied 
to  2  inches  apart  in  the  row.     These  were  taken  from  the  seed  bed  to  the  field. 

Plat  2.  Seed  sown  in  hotbed  in  rows  6  inches  apart  and  thinned  to  2  inches  apart 
when  one  inch  in  height. 

Plat  3.  Seed  sown  in  hotbeds  in  rows  6  inches  apart  and  the  seedling  plants 
transplanted  to  flats  when  the  first  true  leaves  appeared. 

Plat  4.  The  plants  were  handled  exactly  as  for  plat  3,  except  that  they  were 
transplanted  twice  into  flats  before  going  to  the  field. 

Plat  5.  Seed  sown  in  4-inch  dirt  bands,  placed  in  a  hotbed.  Three  or  four  seeds 
were  sown  in  each  band  and  later  thinned  to  a  single  plant.  The  plant,  soil  and  band 
were  taken  to  the  field  and  set. 

The  dates  of  seed  sowing  and  setting  in  the  field  were  the  same  for 
plats  2,  3,  4  and  5,  but  were  later  for  plat  1.  The  seed  for  plat  1  was 
sown  April  11,  1910,  April  20,  1911  and  April  20,  1912.  Seed  for  plats 
2,  3,  and  4  was  sown  March  21,  25  and  23.  The  plant-band  method  of 
growing  plants  was  not  used  in  1910.  In  1911  and  1912  the  dates  of  seed 
sowing  was  the  same  for  plat  5  as  for  plats  2,  3,  and  4.  The  yields,  cost 
of  growing  plants  and  the  value  per  acre  are  given  in  Table  LI  I. 


372 


VEGETABLE  CROPS 


T.-vBLE  LII. — Results   of   Experiments   in   Different   Methods   of    Growing 
Tomato  Plants 

(.\dapted  from  Ind.  Bull.  165) 


Plat 

Average  yield 

tomatoes  per  acre, 

tons 

Co.st  of  growing 
plants  per  acre 

Average  value  less 

cost  of  growing 

plants 

1 
2 
3 
4 
5 

5.26 
10.15 
10.30 
10.82 
14.92 

$1.30 
4.90 
4.95 
6.70 
8.80 

$  51.30 
96.60 
98.05 
101.50 
140.40 

A  study  of  Table  LII  indicates  an  advantage  from  transplanting,  but 
plants  grown  in  flats  have  a  decided  advantage  over  those  grown  in  the 
soil  of  the  hotbed.  Plants  from  the  hotbed  must  be  taken  up  and  hauled 
to  the  field,  while  those  grown  in  flats  are  not  disturbed  until  thej^  reach 
the  field.  The  former  probably  lost  some  soil  and  also  dried  out  to  some 
extent.  The  difference  in  yield  and  value  of  the  tomatoes  from  plats 
2,  3,  and  4  were  very  slight  and  were  probably  due  to  other  factors  than 
transplanting.  While  plat  5  was  used  for  only  two  years  and  the  com- 
parison with  the  other  methods  is  not  quite  as  given  in  the  table,  yet  the 
increase  is  so  great  that  the  value  of  the  plant-band  method  of  growing 
plants  cannot  be  doubted.  In  fact  if  the  results  for  1911  and  1912  only 
are  considered  the  comparison  remains  nearly  the  same. 

Results  similar  to  the  above  have  been  reported  by  Werner  (175), 
Bailey  (6),  Munson  (102),  Bishop  (12),  Olney  (110)  and  others.  In  all  of 
the  experiments  the  value  of  pots,  or  other  receptacles  has  been  shown. 
The  main  advantage  of  pots,  plant  bands,  and  tin  cans  over  flats  is  mainly 
that  the  roots  are  not  broken  or  disturbed  when  individual  containers  are 
used.  When  plants  are  grown  in  flats  many  of  the  roots  are  cut,  or  broken 
when  removed  for  transplanting.  The  individual  container  usually  has 
more  soil  per  plant  than  the  flat  and  this  is  also  an  advantage. 

The  plants  should  be  hardened  before  they  are  taken  to  the  field. 
This  is  usually  done  by  subjecting  them  gradually  to  outdoor  conditions, 
but  withholding  water  serves  practically  the  same  purpose  and  may  be 
followed  where  it  is  impracticable  to  use  cold  frames. 

Setting  Plants  in  the  Field. — Since  the  tomato  plant  is  tender  it 
should  not  be  set  in  the  field  until  the  danger  of  frost  is  past.  In  sections 
of  Florida,  where  frosts  seldom  occur,  plants  are  set  in  the  fall  and  the 
crop  is  grown  during  the  winter,  but  in  practically  all  other  sections  of  the 
United  States  they  are  planted  in  spring  or  early  summer.  For  most 
regions  early  planting  is  important.     In  many  sections  of  the  South, 


SOLANACEOUS  FRUITS 


373 


where  the  growing  season  is  long,  early  planting  is  desirable  because  the 
plants  die  long  before  fall.  In  all  sections  of  the  North  early  planting  is 
important  because  early  fruit  brings  the  highest  price  on  the  market,  and, 
as  a  rule,  the  earlier  the  plants  are  set  the  larger  the  total  yield,  since  the 
plants  usually  continue  to  bear  and  ripen  fruit  until  killed  by  frost. 
App  and  Waller  (1)  in  New  Jersey  found  that  the  earlier  the  plants  were 
set  in  the  field,  the  larger  the  yield  of  tomatoes.  In  1920  they  secured 
records  on  65  farms  and  the  yields  are  given  in  Table  LIII. 


Table  LIII. — Yield  of  Tomatoes  According  to  Date  of  Sei 

(N.  J.  Btdl.  353) 

pting  Plants 

Date  of  planting 

Number  of 
farms 

Number  of 
acres 

Yield  per  acre, 
tons 

May  20  or  before 

16 
19 
23 

7 

236 
2121.^ 
1703^ 
49 

6.65 

5.75 

5.54 

June  10  or  after 

4.06 

Data  similar  to  the  above  were  secured  from  over  300  farms  in  New 
York  State  in  1919  and  133  in  1920  and  the  results  are  more  striking 
than  those  secured  in  New  Jersey. 

The  space  given  tomato  plants  in  the  field  depends  upon  the 
variety  grown  (large  or  small  plant),  soil  used  and  the  method  of  growing. 
On  rich  soils  the  distance  apart  should  be  greater  than  on  medium  or  poor 
soils,  and  if  the  plants  are  pruned  to  one,  or  two  stems  the  distance  should 
be  less  than  when  they  are  allowed  to  grow  on  the  ground  without  pruning. 
The  usual  distance  for  untrained  plants  is  4  by  4  feet  on  average  soil. 
Other  distances  are  3  by  4,  3  feet  10  inches  by  3  feet  10  inches,  4  by  5 
or  even  4  by  6  feet.  As  a  rule  more  fruit  is  produced  on  a  given  area 
when  the  plants  are  fairly  close  together,  than  when  they  are  set  far 
apart.  Yields  from  plants  set  3  by  4  feet  have  been  considerably  larger 
than  from  those  set  4  by  4  at  Ithaca,  New  York.  Plants  trained  to  a 
single  stem  have  produced  a  larger  yield  when  set  2  by  3  than  when  set 
2^^  by  3  feet.  Similar  results  have  been  reported  by  Rosa  (126)  in 
Missouri. 

Plants  are  set  by  hand  or  with  a  machine  transplanter.  The  machine 
is  not  satisfactory  with  large  plants  which  have  considerable  soil  around 
the  roots,  hence  such  plants  are  commonly  set  by  hand.  Large  plants  are 
usually  set  in  a  furrow  made  with  a  light  plow.  See  Chapter  IX  for 
further  details. 

Cultivation. — Frequent,  shallow  cultivation  is  important  until  the 
vines  interfere  with  the  operation.     After  the  vines  get  large  enough 


374  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

to  cover  most  of  the  surface  cultivation  should  cease,  or  be  confined 
to  the  space  between  the  rows,  since  it  is  not  desirable  to  move 
the  vines. 

Experiments  by  Boyle  (15)  in  Indiana  show  the  importance  of 
thorough  cultivation.  He  compared  average  cultivation  with  what  he 
called  thorough  cultivation  for  3  years  1910,  1911  and  1912.  In  1910, 
15  cultivations  and  8  hoeings  resulted  in  a  yield  of  4.63  tons  of 
tomatoes  while  with  4  cultivations  the  yield  was  2.52.  In  1911,  9 
cultivations  and  2  hoeings  produced  13.78  tons  while  3  cultivations 
and  1  hoeing  produced  9.75  tons.  In  1912  the  yields  were  13.36  tons 
for  8  cultivations  and  1  hoeing,  and  9.49  tons  for  3  cultivations  and 
one  hoeing.  The  net  profit  from  thorough  cultivations  was  $3.60  in 
1910,  $35.80  in  1911  and  $34.70  in  1912.  In  these  experiments  the  lower 
number  of  cultivations  given  each  season  represented  the  average  for  the 
region,  while  the  larger  number  represented  what  was  considered 
necessary  to  be  called  "thorough."  App  and  Waller  (1)  show  that  the 
yield  increased  and  the  cost  of  production  per  ton  decreased  as  the  number 
of  cultivations  increased  up  to  seven.  Their  records  covered  3  years  1918, 
1919,  1920  and  the  number  of  farms  from  which  records  were  secured  were 
240,  205  and  205  respectively. 

Pruning  and  Training. — The  practice  of  pruning  and  training  toma- 
toes is  quite  generally  followed  in  the  lower  South  and  to  some  extent 
in  other  portions  of  the  South.  In  the  North  it  is  practiced  by  a  very 
small  percentage  of  commercial  gardeners  and  not  at  all  by  those 
growing  for  the  canning  factory.  Various  methods  of  pruning  and  train- 
ing are  practiced,  the  most  common  one  being  pruning  to  a  single  stem  and 
tying  the  plant  to  a  stake.  Some  growers  prune  to  2  stems  while 
others  prune  to  3  stems.  In  the  single-stem  system  all  of  the  shoots 
which  grow  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves  are  pinched  out  or  cut  out  while 
they  are  still  small.  The  plants  are  tied  to  stakes  with  soft  twine, 
which  is  looped  around  the  stake  and  tied  under  a  leaf-stem  on  the  side 
of  the  plant  opposite  the  stake.  The  twine  should  not  be  tied  around 
the  plant  in  such  a  way  that  it  restricts  growth,  or  cuts  into  the  stem. 
Usually  the  plants  are  trimmed  about  once  every  week  or  10  days. 
Some  growers  pinch  out  the  top  of  the  plant  when  it  reaches  the  top  of  the 
stake.  With  2-stem,  and  3-stem  training  the  desired  number  of 
shoots  are  selected  and  all  others  are  kept  pinched  out.  Each  stem  must 
be  tied  as  in  the  single-stem  system. 

The  stakes  are  usually  1  by  1  inch  or  1)4  by  1)^  inches  square,  or  they 
may  be  made  out  of  saplings  cut  from  the  woods  in  which  case  they  should 
be  about  \}4.  inches  in  diameter.  They  are  usually  5  to  6  feet  tall  and 
are  driven  into  the  ground  12  to  18  inches  deep  and  a  few  inches  from 
the  plant.  Tomato  plants  are  sometimes  tied  to  wires  attached  to  posts 
set  in  the  ground  or  to  heavy  stakes  driven  into  the  soil  to  the  proper 


SOLANACEOUS  FRUITS 


375 


depth.  Others  support  the  vines  on  racks  to  hold  them  off  of  the  ground. 
With  this  method  the  plants  are  trimmed  very  little,  or  not  at  all. 

The  advantages  claimed  for  pruning  and  training  are:  (1)  Earlier 
ripening,  (2)  larger  fruits,  (3)  less  disease  injury,  (4)  larger  yields,  (5) 
cleaner  fruit,  (6)  more  convenient  harvesting  and  (7)  more  convenient 
for  sprajang  the  plants.  The  disadvantages  usually  mentioned  are: 
(1)  Greater  amount  of  labor  and  expense,  (2)  less  total  yield,  (3)  greater 
loss  from  blossom-end  rot,  (4)  more  sunscald  on  the  fruit,  (5)  greater 
amount  of  cracking.  It  is  also  claimed  b}^  some  authorities  that  pruning 
and  training  does  not  increase  earliness. 

In  general  growers  and  other  authorities  in  the  South  favor  pruning 
and  training  while  those  in  the  North  do  not  favor  the  practice.  How- 
ever, some  southern  experimenters  do  not  believe  that  pruning  and  train- 
ing are  profitable  while  some  of  the  northern  experimenters  believe  that 
they  are.  Whipple  and  Schermerhorn  (176)  report  on  results  secured  in 
Montana  during  1906,  1911,  1912  and  1913.  Ten  to  12  varieties 
were  included  in  the  tests  each  year.  In  1912  practically  no  ripe  fruit 
was  produced  on  either  the  pruned  or  unpruned  plants,  but  in  the  other 
three  years  the  pruned  plants  produced  more  ripe  fruit  than  the  unpruned 
plants.  This  was  true  for  every  variety.  The  pruned  plants  were 
pruned  to  a  single  stem  and  tied  to  stakes.  The  authors  conclude  that 
pruning  and  training  are  decidedly  beneficial  both  from  the  standpoint  of 
early  ripening  and  quantity  of  fruit  ripened.  Wicks  (182)  in  Idaho 
reports  results  from  3  years'  experiments  with  various  methods  of  pruning. 
The  total  average  yield  of  marketable  fruit  per  plat  under  the  different 
treatments  are  given  in  Table  LIV. 

Table  LIV. — Average  Yield  of  Marketable  Fruit  per  Plat  for  Three  Years 
1910  TO  1912 
(Idaho  Bull.  76) 


Plat 

Treatment 

Yield,  lb.  per 
plat 

1 
2 
3 

t 

6 

7 

Pruned  to  1  stem,  on  stake 

Pruned  to  2  stems,  on  stake 

Pruned  to  3  stems,  on  stake 

No  pruning,  on  stake 

Pruned  to  1  stem,  on  trellis 

Pruned  to  2  stems,  on  trellis 

Pruned  to  3  stems,  on  trellis 

744.39 

906.70 

948.12 

1,349.06 

723.22 

937.87 

1,024.45 

1,561.07 

700  96 

8 

No  pruning,  on  trellis 

9 

Pruned  to  1  stem,  on  ground 

10 

973.70 

11 
12 

Pruned  to  3  stems,  on  ground 

No  pruning,  on  ground 

912.63 
1,424.65 

376 


VEGETABLE  CROPS 


A  glance  at  Table  LIV  shows  that  the  largest  yield  of  marketable 
tomatoes  was  produced  on  plants  which  were  not  pruned,  but  supported 
on  a  trellis  and  was  followed  by  those  neither  pruned  nor  supported, 
and  by  those  not  pruned  but  supported  by  stakes.  In  general,  the  yield 
decreased  in  proportion  to  the  severity  of  pruning.  There  was 
some  advantage  in  earliness  for  the  plants  pruned  to  a  single  stem,  but 
the  largest  yields  of  fancy  tomatoes  were  produced  on  plats  8,  12  and  4  in 
the  order  given. 

Lloyd  and  Brooks  (89)  have  reported  results  of  experiments  in  Ilhnois 
in  which  the  yield  was  reduced  in  proportion  to  the  severity  of  pruning. 
These  experiments  covered  a  period  of  4  years  in  Union  County  and 
3  years  at  Urbana.     The  treatments  were  as  follows : 

1.  Pruned  to  single  stem  and  topped. 

2.  Pruned  to  single  stem  and  not  topped. 

3.  Pruned  to  single  stem  early,  then  branched. 

4.  Pruned  to  two  stems. 

5.  Pruned  to  three  stems. 

6.  Staked  but  not  pruned. 

7.  Neither  staked  nor  pruned. 

The  results  of  the  Illinois  experiments  are  given  in  Table  LV. 

Table  LV. — Yields  of  Total  Marketable  and  Early  Marketable  Fruit  per 
Plant  in  Illinois 

(111.  Bull.  144) 


Yield  marketable  tomatoes,  pounds  per  plant 

Treatment 
number 

Total  yield 

Yield  early  fruit 

Union  County 

Urbana 

Union  County 

Urbana 

1 

2 
3 

4 
5 
6 

7 

1.08 
1.82 
2.85 
2.31 
2.46 
3.38 
2.62 

4.13 
6.54 
13.64 
10.51 
12.14 
16.49 
19.67 

0.59 
0.67 
0.72 
0.84 
0.98 
0.94 
0.79 

1.88 
2.04 
2.95 
3.38 
3.93 
4.81 
5.13 

Table  LV  shows  that  in  every  instance  the  plants  pruned  to  single 
stems  produced  low  total  yields  and  low  yields  of  early  fruit.  In  Union 
County  the  highest  total  yield  was  on  plants  unpruned  and  staked 
while  at  Urbana  the  highest  yield  was  from  plants  neither  pruned  nor 
staked.  Pruning  had  but  slight  effect  on  size  of  fruit  and  in  only  one 
case  did  the  plants  pruned  to  single  stems  produce  the  largest  fruits. 
The  authors  state  that  pruning  to  single  stem  increased  the  injury  from 
sunscald  and  cracking. 


SOLANACEOUS  FRUITS  377 

In  the  South  pruning  and  staking  has  apparently  increased  the  yields. 
Stuckey  (155)  carried  on  some  experiments  in  Georgia  in  1911  in  which 
four  methods  of  training  were  used.  The  methods  used  and  the  yields 
per  plat  of  104  plants  were  as  follows: 

Pounds 

1.  Pruned  to  single  stem 194.00 

2.  Pruned  to  two  stems 257. 10 

3.  Pruned  to  three  stems 281 .  52 

4.  Neither  pruned  nor  staked 140 .  30 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  yield  of  plants  tied  to  stakes  decreased  as  the 
severity  of  pruning  increased,  but  that  all  of  the  staked  and  pruned  treat- 
ments produced  higher  yields  than  the  plants  which  were  neither  pruned 
nor  staked.  All  of  the  plants  were  planted  the  same  distance  apart, 
4  by  4  feet.  The  length  of  the  bearing  season  and  the  yield  of  fruit  at  the 
first  picking  were  greater  on  the  pruned  and  staked  plants  than  on  those 
neither  pruned  nor  staked.  The  author  comments  as  follows  on  the 
results : 

However,  pruning  and  staking  cannot  be  recommended  unreservedly.  In 
1908,  as  shown  in  Bull.  82  of  this  station,  the  unstaked  plats  yielded  at  the  rate 
of  12,411  pounds  per  acre,  while  the  staked  plats  yielded  only  10,840  pounds  per 
acre.  In  191 1  a  staked  and  an  unstaked  plat  in  an  area  for  the  control  of  blossom- 
end  rot  also  gave  results  in  favor  of  the  unstaked  plat.  The  unstaked  plat 
yielded  for  the  first  three  harvests  at  the  rate  of  1,693  pounds  per  acre.  For 
the  same  period,  the  stake  plats  jdelded  only  360  pounds  per  acre,  practically 
the  entire  early  crop  on  the  staked  plats  being  destroyed  by  the  blossom-end 
rot.  The  season's  yield  from  these  plats  was  3,441  pounds  per  acre  from  the 
unstaked  and  2,202  pounds  per  acre  from  the  staked  plat. 

Olney  (110)  secured  favorable  results  from  pruning  and  staking  in 
Kentucky.  In  these  experiments  the  unpruned  plants  were  set  4  by  6 
feet  while  the  pruned  and  staked  plants  were  set  2  by  4  feet  apart  in  2 
years  out  of  3  and  2  by  3  feet  in  the  other  j-^ear. 

The  yield  of  marketable  fruit  per  plant  was  less  on  the  pruned  plants 
than  on  those  not  pruned  but  the  yield  per  acre  was  greater  from  the 
former,  due  to  the  much  larger  number  of  plants.  As  in  the  Georgia 
experunents,  the  blossom-end  rot  was  greater  on  the  pruned  than  on  the 
unpruned  plants. 

Rosa  (126)  gives  results  of  4  years'  work  in  Missouri  in  which  the 
average  yield  in  pounds  per  acre  was  20,976  for  plants  set  2  by  3  feet 
staked  and  pruned  to  a  single  stem,  31,085  for  plants  set  2  by  3  feet 
staked  but  not  pruned,  32,085  plants  set  3  by  3  feet  staked  but  not 
pruned  and  39,840  for  plants  neither  staked  nor  pruned.  The  author 
states  that  the  highest  percentage  of  early  fruit  was  produced  by  plants 
staked  and  pruned  to  one  stem,  but  the  amount  of  early  fruit  was  actually 


378  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

greater  from  the  plants  allowed  to  grow  in  the  natural  way,  and  their 
yield  of  late  fruit  was  much  greater. 

Results  of  the  various  experiments  mentioned  and  others  seem  to 
justify  the  conclusion  that  pruning  and  staking  in  the  North  usually 
results  in  a  reduced  yield  and  a  greatly  increased  cost.  Blossom-end 
rot,  sunscald  and  cracking  are  apparently  increased  by  pruning  and  stak- 
ing. There  is  practically  no  advantage  in  earliness  nor  size  of  frUit 
in  favor  of  pruning  and  staking  in  the  North.  In  the  North  pruning 
and  staking  largely  has  been  discontinued  because  growers  have  found  it 
unprofitable. 

In  the  South,  pruning  and  staking  is  quite  generally  practiced  and 
experiments  indicate  that  it  might  be  profitable.  It  is  probable  that 
pruning  is  of  more  importance  in  the  South  than  in  the  North,  because  of 
the  greater  severity  of  foliage  diseases  in  the  former  region.  Where 
foliage  diseases  are  severe  plants  tied  to  stakes  are  usually  less  injured 
than  those  allowed  to  grow  on  the  ground,  due  to  the  fact  that  the  trained 
plants  are  more  exposed  to  the  sun  and  air  than  those  not  trained.  This 
exposure  allows  the  plants  to  become  dry  earlier  in  the  morning  and  sooner 
after  rains  than  is  the  case  with  plants  not  so  exposed.  During  wet  sea- 
sons pruned  and  staked  plants  show  to  much  better  advantage  than  they 
do  during  drj^  seasons  and  the  reverse  is  true. with  unpruned  and  unstaked 
plants.  The  fact  that  blossom-end  rot  is  nearly  always  severe  during 
dry  weather  and  is  worse  on  trained  than  on  untrained  plants  indicates 
that  the  pruning  and  staking  either  allows  more  moisture  to  escape  from 
the  surface  of  the  soil  or  else  the  pruned  plant  cannot  get  the  moisture  as 
well  as  unpruned  plants.  Results  of  root  studies  made  by  the  author 
(still  unpublished)  indicate  that  the  latter  is  probably  true.  The  root 
system  of  the  pruned  plants  is  reduced  in  about  the  same  proportion 
as  the  top,  hence  it  seems  probable  that  pruned  plants  suffer  more  from 
drought  than  unpruned  plants  because  the  former  cannot  get  as  much  of 
the  available  moisture  as  the  latter. 

Varieties. — A  large  number  of  varieties  of  tomatoes  are  in  existence, 
but  not  as  many  as  is  indicated  by  the  names  found  in  the  seed  catalogs. 
In  1902  American  seedsmen  listed  327  so-called  varieties,  but  undoubtedly 
many  of  the  names  were  synonyms.  Only  a  small  percentage  of  the 
varieties  grown  in  the  United  States  at  the  present  time  are  of  much 
importance.  Ten  to  15  varieties  constitute  the  bulk  of  the  crop 
grown  for  home  use,  for  market  and  for  canning. 

In  choosing  varieties  of  tomatoes  the  following  points  should  be  con- 
sidered: (1)  The  purpose  for  which  it  is  grown,  whether  for  home  use, 
for  market,  or  for  manufacture;  (2)  the  length  of  the  growing  season;  (3) 
yield  and  (4)  susceptibility  to  disease.  When  the  crop  is  grown  for  home 
use  only  the  preference  of  the  family  should  be  considered  as  far  as  the 
quality,  type  and  color  of  fruit  are  concerned.     When  grown  for  the 


SOLAN  AC  EOUS  FRUITS  379 

general  market  the  preferences  of  the  buyers  must  be  considered.  Some 
markets  seem  to  prefer  red-skinned  fruits,  while  others  prefer  those  with 
pink  skin.  Earliness  is  usually  an  important  consideration  in  growing 
for  the  market,  therefore,  some  early-ripening  variety  should  be  grown. 
For  canning  the  following  qualities  are  important:  (1)  High  yield,  (2) 
good  color  (bright  red),  (3)  smooth  surface,  (4)  small  core  and  (5)  fairly 
soHd  flesh. 

The  following  are  the  most  popular  early  varieties  of  a  red  color; 
Earhana,  Bonny  Best,  Chalk's  Jewel,  and  John  Baer.  The  Earhana  is 
the  earliest  of  the  four  mentioned,  but  there  are  early  strains  of  the 
other  three  which  are  as  early  as  the  late  strains  of  the  Earliana.  Bonny 
Best,  Chalk's  Jewel  and  John  Baer  are  so  near  alike  that  there  are  as  great 
differences  between  strains  of  any  one  of  these  varieties  as  between  the 
varieties. 

June  Pink  is  the  earliest  of  the  pink-skinned  varieties.  Globe, 
Early  Detroit  are  medium-early,  pink-skinned  varieties.  Beauty,  an 
old  variety,  is  still  the  most  popular  late,  pink-skinned  tomato.  Acme 
is  another  old  variety  that  is  still  grown.  Ponderosa,  a  very  large 
tomato  with  solid  flesh  is  quite  popular  in  the  home  garden. 

Among  the  important  medium  and  late,  red  varieties  are  Stone, 
Matchless,  Perfection,  Greater  Baltimore,  My  Maryland  and  Red  Rock. 

In  regions  having  a  short  growing  season  early  varieties  are  grown 
for  market  and  for  canning  because  late-maturing  varieties  are  usually 
killed  by  frosts  before  a  profitable  yield  is  produced.  For  canning  in 
New  York,  Bonny  Best,  Chalk's  Jewel  and  John  Baer  constitute  at  least 
90  per  cent  of  the  crop.  App  and  Waller  (1)  report  that  during 
the  3  years  1918-1920  Bonny  Best,  Greater  Baltimore,  Stone,  Red  Rock, 
Matchless,  Trophy  and  Chalk's  Jewel,  in  the  order  given,  were  the 
important  canning  varieties  in  New  Jersey.  These  are  the  most  impor- 
tant canning  varieties  in  most  sections  of  the  United  States,  the  early 
varieties  being  used  where  the  growing  season  is  short. 

The  following  brief  characterization  of  the  important  varieties  is 
given  merely  as  an  aid  in  choosing  varieties  to  meet  certain  requirements. 

Earliana:  An  early  variety  producing  only  moderately  vigorous 
vines  with  fohage  quite  susceptible  to  disease.  Fruit  red,  often  poorly 
colored  at  the  stem  end,  inclined  to  crack,  often  rough,  although  strains 
of  smooth-surfaced  fruits  are  available.  Losing  in  popularity  but  is 
still  grown  because  it  averages  earher  than  any  other  red  variety.  It  is 
not  a  good  shipping  tomato. 

Bonny  Best:  Averages  a  few  days  later  than  Earliana.  Vines 
vigorous,  prolific,  foliage  somewhat  susceptible  to  disease.  Fruit  red, 
solid,  medium  in  size,  smooth,  small  core,  and  quite  uniform  in  size  and 
color.  This  is  similar  to  Chalk's  Jewel,  but  strains  which  resemble  the 
original  Bonny  Best,  as  compared  with  Chalk's  Jewel,  produce  a  smaller 


380  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

plant;  the  fruit  is  a  trifle  smaller,  more  sjanmetrical  and  not  as  flat, 
ripens  a  little  earlier. 

Chalk's  Jewel:  Vines  vigorous;  fruit  medium  to  large  in  size,  red 
and  usually  well-colored  all  over,  smooth  and  regular.  Ripens  later  than 
Earliana  and  averages  a  little  later  than  Bonny  Best. 

John  Baer:  A  comparatively  new  variety  similar  to  Chalk's  Jewel 
and  probably  a  selection  of  it. 

June  Pink:  An  early  variety,  a  few  days  later  than  Earhana,  but  the 
earliest  of  the  well-known  pink-skin  sorts.     Not  as  prolifi  c  as  the  Earliana. 

Globe:  A  medium  early  variety,  valued  for  its  solid,  globular  fruit 
of  a  pink  or  purplish  color.  It  is  probably  the  most  popular  of  the  pink- 
skin  sorts,  and  is  largely  grown  in  the  South  for  shipping  to  northern 
markets. 

Stone:  This  is  one  of  the  most  popular  of  the  late  varieties  used 
for  canning.  It  is  also  a  popular  market  variety  in  some  regions.  The 
plants  are  strong  and  vigorous,  and  produce  a  heavy  yield  of  fruit  where 
the  growing  season  is  long.  The  fruit  is  bright  red  in  color  of  good 
size  and  smooth.     This  variety  is  too  late  for  most  sections  of  the  North. 

Matchless:  This  variety  is  similar  in  every  way  to  the  Stone,  but 
somewhat  earlier. 

Greater  Baltimore:  This  is  a  medium  early  variety.  Plants  are 
vigorous,  and  produce  large  yields;  fruit  large,  smooth,  somewhat  globu- 
lar in  shape,  firm,  ripens  evenly,  bright  red  in  color.  This  is  a  popular 
medium  early  variety  grown  extensively  for  canning. 

My  Maryland:  Plant  medium  size  with  a  spreading,  somewhat 
upright  growth;  fruit  large,  medium  red  color,  somewhat  flattened,  firm 
and  fine  texture;  the  flesh  is  dark  red,  firm  and  sub-acid;  core  small. 
This  variety  resembles  Stone,  but  is  somewhat  earlier  and  bears  through 
a  longer  season.     Not  as  reliable  bearer  as  Stone. 

Perfection:  This  variety  was  introduced  by  Livingston  Seed  Com- 
pany of  Columbus,  Ohio,  in  1880.  It  was  selected  from  a  field  of  Acme, 
which  is  a  purple  tomato,  and  is  probably  a  result  of  accidental  hybridi- 
zation. The  plant  is  large;  fruit  medium  to  large  in  size,  somewhat 
flattened  and  of  medium  red  color;  core  small;  flesh  light  red  in  color, 
fine  texture  and  firm. 

Beauty:  Plant  large,  spreading  and  somewhat  upright;  fruit  large, 
somewhat  flattened  and  shghtly  corrugated;  purple-red  color;  flesh 
firm  in  texture;  skin  thick  and  does  not  crack  badly.  This  is  one  of  the 
most  desirable  of  the  pink-  or  purple-skinned  sorts. 

Diseases.- — The  tomato  is  subject  to  the  attacks  of  a  great  many 
diseases  affecting  all  parts  of  the  plant,  roots,  stems,  leaves  and  fruits 
Probably  the  most  important  diseases  are  fusarium  wilt,  bacterial 
wilt,  leaf  spot  (leaf  blight),  early  blight,  late  blight  blossom-end  rot 
and  mosaic. 


SOLAN ACEOUS  FRUITS  381 

FusARiUM  Wilt  {Fusarium  lycopersici) . — This  disease  is  very  wide- 
spread and  is  especially  serious  in  the  Middle  Atlantic,  Gulf  coast  and  lower 
Mississippi  Valley  states.  Wilt  is  characterized  in  its  early  stage  by 
a  wilting  of  the  plant  and  an  upward  and  inward  rolling  of  the  leaves. 
The  leaves  turn  yellow  and  slowly  die,  the  lower  ones  first  but  finally 
the  upper  ones  also.  A  cross-section  of  an  infected  stem  shows  a  dark- 
brown  discoloration  between  the  pith  and  bark.  This  discoloration  of 
the  woody  layer  distinguishes  this  disease  from  bacterial  wilt. 

Since  the  fungus  causing  wilt  can  live  in  the  soil  for  several  years 
control  measures  must  consist  of  soil  treatment,  or  the  use  of  wilt- 
resistant  strains  or  varieties.  Soil  treatment  is  not  practicable  except  in 
the  greenhouse  where  thorough  sterilization  will  control  the  disease. 
Considerable  progress  has  been  made  in  developing  wilt-resistant  strains 
of  tomatoes.  Various  wilt-resistant  strains  have  been  developed  by 
various  workers,  the  best  known  being  Marvel,  a  selection  from  Marvel 
of  the  Market,  a  French  variety;  Arlington  and  Columbus,  selections  from 
Greater  Baltimore;  and  Norton,  a  selection  of  Stone.  According  to 
Pritchard  (119)  these  strains  or  varieties  are  not  only  resistant  to  the 
wilt  but  possess  the  other  qualities  desired. 

Bacterial  Wilt  {Bacillus  solanacearum) . — Bacterial  wilt  or  bacterial 
blight  is  often  very  serious  in  the  South  and  is  also  present  in  many  sec- 
tions of  the  North,  but  usually  not  very  destructive.  Plants  affected  with 
this  disease  usually  wilt  more  rapidly  than  those  attacked  by  the  Fusarium 
wilt.  Affected  plants  remain  green  for  awhile  after  they  are  infected  then 
suddenly  wilt.  The  discoloration  of  the  stem  is  black  rather  then 
brown.  When  cut,  the  stem  exudes  a  dirty,  milky  slime.  The  bacteria 
causing  the  Wight  can  enter  the  plant  only  through  a  wound  and  are 
usually  introduced  by  insects.  They  may  also  be  carried  from  diseased 
to  healthy  plants  by  pruning  knives  and  cultivating  tools. 

Sherbakoff  (134)  suggests  the  following  control  measures: 

Make  the  seed  bed  on  a  soil  not  previously  used  for  growing  tomatoes  or  other 
crops  susceptible  to  the  disease,  or  sterilize  the  seed-bed  soil  with  steam  or 
formalin. 

Rotate  crops  in  the  field  so  that  tomatoes  or  crops  related  to  them  will  not 
be  planted  on  the  same  soil  more  often  than  once  in  several  years.  While  this 
rule  is  generally  a  good  one  to  follow,  experienced  tomato  growers  say  its  observ- 
ance is  imperative  following  a  crop  once  affected  with  the  bHght. 

The  tomato  field  should  be  frequently  inspected  for  blight  and  every  diseased 
plant  removed  and  destroyed. 

Keep  in  check  the  various  insects  that  may  be  working  on  the  plants. 

Do  not  plant  tomatoes  in  a  soil  infested  with  root-knot  nematodes. 

Do  not  injure  the  plant  roots  unnecessarily  in  transplanting. 

Leaf  Spot  {Septoria  lycopersici). — Leaf  spot  or  leaf  Wight  is  probably 
the  worst  disease  of  the  tomato.     The  disease  appears  on  the  leaves  as 


382  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

water-soaked  spots  which  finallj^  turn  brown.  A  yellowing  of  the  leaf 
takes  place  and  the  edges  begin  to  roll  and  the  leaf  finally  dries  up  and 
drops  off.  The  older  leaves  die  first  but  the  disease  works  outward  or 
upward  to  new  leaves  until  the  plants  are  often  almost  completely 
defohated  before  half  of  the  crop  is  matured.  Leaf  spot  is  more  serious 
during  wet  weather  than  in  dry  weather. 

Control  measures  recommended  are  spraying  plants  in  the  seed  bed 
every  week  or  ten  days,  using  3-3-50  Bordeaux  mixture;  spraying  plants 
in  the  field  with  5-5-50  Bordeaux;  rotation  of  crops,  so  that  tomatoes 
are  planted  on  the  same  land  not  more  than  once  in  3  years  and  steril- 
ize soil  of  seed  bed  or  use  new  soil.  While  thorough  spraying  in  the 
field  will  control  the  disease  it  has  not  been  found  practicable  on  a  com- 
mercial scale. 

Early  Blight  (AUernaria  solani). — In  many  respects  early  blight 
is  similar  to  leaf  spot.  The  spots  on  the  leaves  are  angular  in  outline  and 
of  a  brownish  or  black  color.  Spots  on  the  stems  and  petioles  are  dark, 
more  or  less  cu'cular,  depressed  areas.  The  fruit  sometimes  becomes 
spotted.  The  fungus  causing  this  disease  is  the  same  that  causes  early 
blight  of  potatoes. 

Spraying  with  Bordeaux  mixture  in  the  seed  bed  and  in  the  field  is 
recommended  as- a  control  measure. 

Late  Blight  {Phytopthora  infestans). — This  disease  is  due  to  the  same 
fungus  causing  late  Wight  of  potatoes.  The  disease  appears  compara- 
tively late  in  the  season  and  shows  on  the  plants  as  black,  water-soaked 
spots  on  the  older  leaves  and  stems.  The  spots  enlarge  and  increase  in 
number,  killing  the  leaves  and  rotting  the  stem.  In  severe  attacks  the 
plant  rapidly  turns  black  and  dies.  On  the  fruit  the  spots  are  sunken 
and  discolored,  usually  at  the  stem  end. 

Spra>ang  with  Bordeaux  mixture  has  given  good  results  in  Virginia 
and  elsewhere. 

Blossom-end  Rot. — This  disease  affects  the  fruit  only  and,  as 
indicated  by  the  name,  it  occurs  at  the  blossom  end.  The  first  appear- 
ance is  as  a  small  yellowish  spot  around  the  dried-up  blossom.  The  spot 
gradually  enlarges  and  takes  on  a  dark  brown  or  black  color.  The 
affected  tissue  shrinks  resulting  in  a  more  or  less  sunken  spot.  No 
causal  organism  has  been  found  and  authorities  are  agreed  that  it  is  a 
physiological  disease  due  to  certain  conditions  adverse  to  the  normal 
growth  of  the  plant.  Irregular  water  supply,  especially  a  sudden  check 
in  it  is  the  chief  cause  of  the  disease.  It  nearly  always  appears  in  a  dry 
season. 

Any  cultural  practice  which  helps  to  conserve  soil  moisture  aids  in  the 
control  of  blossom-end  rot.  Irrigation  will  completely  control  it,  if 
properly  used.  Results  secured  by  Stuckcy  (153)  in  Georgia  seem  to 
indicate  that  resistance  and  susceptibility  to  blossom-end  rot  are  trans- 


SOLANACEOUS  FRUITS  383 

mitted  from  parent  to  progeny.     Pruning  and  staking  apparently  increases 
the  amount  of  blossom-end  rot. 

Mosaic. — Plants  affected  with  mosaic  show  abnormal  leaf  develop- 
ment, variegated  mottling  of  dark  and  light  green  areas  predominating. 
At  times  diseased  plants  have  fernlike  leaves.  In  severe  cases  production 
is  greatly  reduced,  but  slightly  affected  plants  often  yield  normal  crops. 
This  disease  is  often  very  serious  on  greenhouse  tomatoes.  Mosaic  is 
highly  infectious  and  spreads  rapidly.  Gardner  and  Kendrick  (54)  state 
that  the  same  disease  affects  tobacco,  pepper,  petunia  and  a  number  of 
related  plants  including  weeds: 

The  disease  is  spread  largel}^  by  insects,  especially  by  plant  lice,  and  certain 
cultural  operations,  such  as  pruning  and  transplanting. 

Gardner  and  Kendrick  (54)  suggest  the  following  control  measures 
for  mosaic: 

1.  Do  not  use  tomato  transplants  from  plant  beds  in  which  mosaic  is  pres- 
ent.    Guard  against  spread  during  transplanting. 

2.  Eradicate  all  horse  nettles,  ground  cherries  in  and  near  greenhouses, 
plant  beds  and  tomato  fields  early  in  the  season. 

3.  Keep  tomato  fields  free  of  all  solanaceous  weeds,  annual  or  perennial. 

4.  Keep  plant  beds  free  of  all  weeds  and  tomatoes  during  the  summer. 

5.  Keep  greenhouses  free  of  volunteer  tobacco  and  tomato  plants  and  all 
related  weeds. 

6.  Control  insect  carriers  by  spraying  or  fumigation. 

Tomato  Homworms. — Tomato  hornworms  are  large  green  worms, 
sometimes  called  tomato  worms  or  tobacco  worms  as  they  feed  about 
equally  well  on  both  plants.  They  are  the  larvae  of  large  sphinx  moths 
of  two  species  which  are  similar  in  habits.  The  worms  devour  the  foliage 
very  rapidly.     One  worm  will  strip  a  large  tomato  plant. 

Hand  picking  and  spraying  the  plants  with  arsenate  of  lead  are  the 
control  measures  recommended. 

Tomato  Fruit  Worm. — This  worm  is  a  very  serious  pest  in  many 
sections  of  the  South,  where  it  eats  into  the  green  fruit.  It  is  the  same 
insect  as  the  boll  worm  of  cotton  and  the  corn  earworm.  Since  it  prefers 
sweet  corn  to  tomatoes  the  latter  may  be  protected  by  planting  a  row  of 
sweet  corn  here  and  there  in  the  tomato  field.  Spraying  with  arsenate  of 
lead  two  or  three  times  will  partially  control  this  worm. 

Dropping  of  Blossoms. — Shedding  of  the  blossoms  frequently 
results  in  a  low  yield  of  tomatoes.  Rolfs  (124)  states  that  during  some 
years  this  trouble  occasions  a  greater  loss  to  the  tomato  growers  (in 
Florida)  than  any  diseases  that  are  caused  by  micro-organisms.  The 
blossoms  develop  and  open,  but  drop  off,  leaving  no  fruit  set.  Blossom 
dropping  may  be  caused  by  (1)  a  sudden  occurence  of  cold  or  cool  weather 


384  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

at  the  time  when  the  plants  are  in  blossom,  (2)  hard  rains,  which  may 
actually  wash  away  the  pollen,  or  otherwise  affect  pollination,  (3)  very 
hot  dry  weather,  especially  drying  winds,  (4)  injury  by  thrips  and  (5) 
rapid  vine  growth  due  to  excess  of  nitrogen. 

Just  how  some  of  these  factors  affect  fruit-setting  is  not  definitely 
known.  Unfavorable  weather  might  seriously  check  the  development 
of  the  pollen  grains,  prevent  the  opening  of  the  anthers,  injure  the  stigma, 
or,  in  some  way  interfere  with  fertilization.  Thrips  may  cause  the 
blossoms  to  drop  due  to  injury  to  the  dehcate  parts  of  the  bud.  On 
thrips-injury  Watson  (173)  gives  the  following: 

The  young,  upon  hatching,  at  once  attack  the  tenderest  part  of  the  blossom 
or  bud.  The  stamens  seem  to  suffer  first;  but,  as  there  is  always  much  more 
pollen  produced  than  can  be  used,  no  particular  harm  is  done  here.  If  there  are 
only  a  few  thrips  present,  say,  one  or  two  to  each  blossom,  they  usually  find 
enough  food  in  the  stamens  and  do  no  harm  to  the  crop.  It  is  even  possible  that 
they  are  of  service  in  cross-pollinating  the  blooms.  But  where  there  are  a  dozen 
of  them  in  a  single  bloom,  they  attack  other  parts.  Investigations  in  the  tomato 
fields  in  the  spring  of  1912  showed  as  high  as  twenty  thrips  to  a  single  bloom. 
When  present  in  such  numbers,  various  parts  of  the  flower  are  attacked  and 
seriously  injured,  especially  the  pistil.  Soon  after,  the  whole  bloom  turns  yellow 
and  falls  off.  If  this  is  repeated  for  all  the  blossoms  on  the  first  three  or  four 
clusters  which  was  often  the  case  in  that  year,  the  crop  is  ruinously  shortened,  as 
these  first  fruits  are  the  paying  ones. 

It  is  a  matter  of  common  observation  that  when  tomatoes  are  grown  in 
very  rich  soil,  as  in  an  old  barn-yard,  there  is  a  very  luxurious  growth  of 
vines  provided  the  growing  season  is  favorable.  Very  often  little  fruit 
is  set  on  such  vines,  j^et  in  a  dry  season  vines  growing  under  the  same 
conditions  produce  a  heavy  crop  of  fruit.  It  has  been  assumed  that  excess 
of  nitrogen,  in  some  way,  was  responsible  for  the  failure  of  the  fruit  to 
set.  Many  authorities  merely  state  that  vegetative  growth  is  made  at 
the  expense  of  the  fruit,  but  this  does  not  explain  the  cause.  Results  of 
experiments  conducted  by  Kraus  and  Kraybill  (86)  indicate  that  fruit- 
fulness  is  associated  with  a  condition  of  balance  between  nitrogen  and 
carbohydrates  in  the  plants.  In  their  experiments  those  plants  which 
were  highly  vegetative  were  high  in  moisture,  total  nitrogen,  and  nitrate 
nitrogen,  and  low  in  carbohydrates,  and  were  unfruitful.  Plants  which 
were  weakly  vegetative  were  also  unfruitful.  These,  as  compared  with  the 
highly  vegetative  plants,  were  low  in  moisture,  and  total  nitrogen  and 
lacking  in  nitrate  nitrogen,  but  were  high  in  carbohydrates.  With- 
holding water  had  the  same  effect  on  the  plants  as  limiting  the  supply 
of  available  nitrogen. 

Moisture  in  the  form  of  rain,  may,  therefore,  affect  fruit-setting  by 
making  available  to  the  plant  the  nitrate  nitrogen  in  the  soil.     Moisture 


SOLAN ACEOUS  FRUITS 


385 


in  itself  would  not  have  this  effect  unless  nitrate  nitrogen  were  present 
in  the  soil.  Hence  a  soil  rich  in  organic  nitrogen,  even  with  ample  mois- 
ture would  not  produce  excessive  growth  of  vine  unless  the  conditions 
were  favorable  to  the  growth  of  organisms,  which  convert  organic  nitro- 
gen into  forms  available  to  the  plant.  Even  with  a  large  amount  of  avail- 
able nitrogen  in  the  soil  excessive  vine  growth  would  not  be  produced 
unless  the  moisture  were  abundant.  This  might  account  for  plants 
setting  a  good  crop  of  fruit  one  year  and  failing  to  do  so  another  year, 
even  with  the  same  or  similar  soil. 

Cost  of  Production.^ — The  cost  of  production  of  tomatoes  or  any 
other  crop  varies  greatly  on  different  farms  in  any  given  region,  and  in 
different  localities.  These  variations  are  due  to  differences  in  costs  of 
labor,  value  of  land,  interest  rates,  cultural  practices  followed,  and  in 
practically  all  other  items  entering  into  the  cost  of  production.  As  a  rule 
the  cost  of  growing  tomatoes  for  the  canning  factory  is  less  than  the  cost  of 
growing  for  the  general  market.  This  is  due  largely  to  the  fact  that  more 
intensive  methods  are  followed  in  growing  for  market  than  for  the  can- 
ning factory.  Norton  (109)  has  published  results  of  a  survey  on  the  cost 
of  growing  tomatoes  on  133  farms  in  New  York  in  1920.  Table  LVI 
gives  the  average  cost  per  acre  of  the  various  items,  the  total  cost  of  grow- 
ing, the  total  cost  of  harvesting,  the  receipts  from  tomatoes  and  the  total 
cost  per  ton. 


Table  LVI. — Average  Cost  of  Producing  an  Acre  of  Tomatoes  on  133  New 
York  Farms  Growing  602.2  Acres  in  1920 

(Table  41  Cornell  Bull.  412) 


Item 

Quantity 
per  acre 

Cost 
per  acre 

Per  cent 

of  total 

cost 

Plants 

3,377 
602  lbs. 
3  tons 

62.0  hr. 

61 . 1  hr. 
61.1  hr. 

0.7  hr. 

$  21.98 
13.35 
6.23 

26.19 
14.98 
5.01 
1.31 
0.46 
0.25 
2.03 
13.60 

13.3 

Fertilizer 

8.1 

Manure  charged  to  tomatoes 

3  8 

Labor  growing  tomatoes: 

Human 

15.9 

Horse.... 

9  1 

Use  of  equipment 

3.0 
0.8 

0.3 

Miscellaneous  growing  expenses 

0.2 

Interest  on  growing  costs 



1.2 

8.3 

Total  growing  cost.    . 

$105.39 

64  0 

386 


VEGETABLE  CROPS 


T.\BLE   LVI. — AVER.\GE    CoST   OF   PRODUCING    AN  ACHE   OF  ToM.\TOES  ON    133   NeW 

York  Farms  Growing  602.2  Acres  in  1920 — Conlinxml 

(Table  41    Cornoll  Hull.  412) 


Item 

Quantity 
per  acre 

1 

Cost 
per  acre 

Per  cent 

of  total 

cost 

Labor  harvesting  tomatoes: 

Human 

102.7  hr. 
37.4  hr. 
37.4  hr. 

$  42.58  i 
9.15 
3.06 
3.36 
0.59 
0.46 

25.9 

5.6 

Use  of  equipment 

Use  of  automobile  and  truck 

1.8 
2.0 

Miscellaneous  harvesting  expenses 

Interest  on  harvesting  costs 

0.4 

0.3 

Total  harvesting  cost 

$  59.20 

36.0 

$164.59 

100.0 

Tomatoes  disposed  of  other  than  to  factory .  .  . 

0.08  ton 
8.64  tons 

$     2.47 
183.17 

8.72  tons 

$185.64 

Price  received  per  ton 

$  21.29 

Cost  per  ton  growing 

Cost  per  ton  harvesting 

$  12.09 
6.79 

$  18.88 

App  and  Waller  (1)  have  published  results  of  a  survey  on  the  cost  of 
production  of  tomatoes  in  New  Jersey  for  a  period  of  3  years,  1918, 
1919  and  1920.  In  1918  records  were  secured  on  280  farms,  and  in  1919 
and  1920  the  studies  were  made  on  205  farms.  The  average  cost  of  the 
various  items,  the  average  cost  per  acre  and  per  ton  are  given  in 
Table  LVIL 


SOLANACEOUS  FRUITS 


387 


Table  LVII. — Average  Cost  of  Producing  an  Acre  of  Tomatoes  in  New  Jersey 
1918,  1919  and  1920 
(Table  25  N.  J.  Bull.  353) 


Items 


1918 


-year  average 


Number  of  farms . 
Acres  grown 


280.0* 
2,616.25 


205.0  205.0 

1,966.3  2,040.25 


690.0 
2,207.6 


Amount       Cost 


Amount       Cost       Amount       Cost       Amount       Cost 


Seed,  oz 2.176 

Plants,  no 893.0 

Baskets,  no 37.0 

Cover  crop,  lb 29 . 0 

Fertilizer,  lb j  801.0 

7.23 
174.0 


Manure,  tons 

Lime,  lb 

Spray  material 

Man  labor,  hr 

Horse  labor,  hr 

Machine  labor,  hr 

Truck  labor,  hr 

Tractor  labor,  hr 

Land  rental 

Interest  on  money,  per 

cent 

Miscellaneousi 


142.0 

100.0 

100.0 

2.93 

0.08 


5.06 
0.99 
14.62 
14.29 
0.20 
0.91 
38.87 
20.00 
6.17 
4.13 
0.12 
9.27 

1.76 


2.491 

,320.0 

19.0 

50.4 

891.0 

6.0 

700.0 


101.8 
69.5 
69.5 
2.2 
0.2 


$     0.60 

2.4 

3.63 

1,338.0 

2.59 

23.0 

1.68 

28.2 

20.08 

859.0 

15.07 

7.74 

1.60 

480.0 

0.78 

33.59 

128.39 

16.38 

80.68 

5.18 

80.63 

3.22 

3.48 

0.31 

0.65 

10.24 

1.74 

6.0 

1.72 

$118.41 

56.56 

2.09 

2.09 

8  85 

0.61  2. 

3.26!  1,173. 

3.13 

1.04 
18.71 
16.28 

0.66 

0.81 
49.10 
16.33 

5.65 

5.21 

0.98 
11.30 


2.00 
0.53 


1.50 

2.08 

3.73 

1.21 

17.50 

15.14 

0.76 

0.84 

40.45 

17.80 

5.72 

4.20 

0.44 

10.18 

1.83 
0,69 


Cost  per  acre i ;$119.26l: 

Cost  per  ton  sold 19.13 

Yield  per  acre  sold '  .      6 .  23 

Yield  grown  per  acre .  . . ' 6 

Cost  of  harvesting,  not  I 

including  baskets.  ...  I 6.24 


$135.62 

23.64 

5.74 

6.07 

6.95' 


$124.06 

25.58 

4.85 

5.19 

6  96 


*  Includes  40  Cape  May  County  farms. 

t  Insurance,  hot-bed  materials,  use  of  auto  in  getting  plants,  hauling  hired. 

t  Omitting  supervision  charge  of  10  per  cent  which  was  not  made  in  1919  and  1920. 


Cost  figures  on  tomatoes  were  obtained  on  27  farms  in  Wood  County, 
Ohio,  by  the  College  of  Agriculture,  Ohio  State  University.  In  this 
study  the  account  method  was  used.  The  average  cost  per  acre  on  26  of 
these  farms  is  given  in  Table  LVIII.  (Adapted  from  a  mimeographed 
report  by  R.  F.  Taber  as  reported  by  Norton  (109).) 


388 


VEGETABLE  CROPS 


Table  LVIII. — Average  Cost  of  Producing  an  Acre  of  Tomatoes  on  26  Ohio 
Farms  Growing  185.7  Acres  in  1920 


Item 

Quantity  per 
acre 

Cost  per  acre 

Plants                                                                 

2,248 

$     8  99 

Fertilizer                                                       

2  40 

Manure  charged  to  crop                      

2.3  tons 

34.0  hr. 
34.0  hr. 
34.0  hr. 

7  90 

Labor  growing  tomatoes: 

15.96 

7.33 

2.38 

Use  of  tractor                                        

3  07 

Interest  and  taxes  on  land                  

17.68 

1.58 

Total  growing  cost 

$  67.29 

Total  harvesting  cost 

$  33  46 

Total  cost  of  crop 

$100  75 

Yield  per  acre  delivered                            

6.4  tons 
8.1  tons 

Yield  per  acre  including  unharvested  tomatoes 

%  10  ."SI 

Cost  per  ton  harvesting  tomatoes  delivered 

5.23 

Total  cost  per  ton  of  tomatoes  delivered . 


$  15.74 


An  average  of  7.1  acres  of  tomatoes  per  farm  was  grown  on  the 
Ohio  farms.  The  average  yield  harvested  per  acre  was  lower  than  on  the 
New  York  farms,  and  about  the  same  proportion  of  the  crop  was  not 
harvested.  Very  little  fertilizer  was  used.  The  manure  was  charged  at 
from  $3  to  $4  per  ton. 

The  hours  of  human  and  horse  labor  were  less  than  in  New  York. 
The  costs  given  were  for  farmers  keeping  accounts  on  the  crop,  therefore 
they  might  be  expected  to  be  lower  than  for  average  farms.  Also,  the 
acreage  of  tomatoes  per  farm  was  fairly  large. 

In  all  of  the  studies  reported  there  has  been  a  great  range  in  the  cost 
per  ton  of  tomatoes.  According  to  Norton  (109)  75  to  80  per  cent  of  the 
total  tonnage  of  the  tomatoes  produced  on  the  133  farms  surveyed  in 
New  York  in  1920  was  produced  at  or  below  a  cost  of  from  $21  to  $22  per 
ton.  This  tonnage  was  grown  by  61  per  cent  of  the  producers  on  64  per 
cent  of  the  acreage.  Table  LIX  shows  the  range  in  costs  of  producing 
tomatoes  on  133  farms  in  New  York  in  1920. 


SOLANACEOUS  FRUITS 


389 


Table  LIX.— 

Range 

OF  Costs  of  Producing  Tomatoes  on  133 

Farms  in  1920 

Table  58  Cornell  Bull.  412) 

Num- 
ber 
of 

farms 

Per 

Per  cent 

Per 

Per  cent 

Per 

Per  cent 

Yield 

Cost 
per  ton 

cent 

of  farms 

cent 

of  acres 

cent 

of  tons 

of 

at  this 

Acres 

of 

at  this 

Tons 

of 

at  this 

per 

total 
farms 

cost  or 
lower 

total 
acres 

cost  or 
lower 

total 
tons 

cost  or 
lower 

acre, 
tons 

$10 

3 

2.3 

2.3 

17.0 

2.8 

2.8 

319 

6.1 

6.1 

18.8 

11 

4 

3.0 

5.3 

16.6 

2.8 

5.6 

241 

4.6 

10.7 

14.5 

12 

1 

0.7 

6.0 

2.5 

0.4 

6.0 

234 

0.6 

11.3 

13.6 

13 

8 

6.0 

12.0 

40.0 

6.6 

12.6 

415 

7.9 

19.2 

10.4 

14 

10 

7.5 

19.5 

39.0 

6.5 

19.1 

457 

8.7 

27.9 

11.7 

15 

9 

6.8 

26.3 

46.8 

7.8 

26.9 

544 

10.4 

38.3 

11.6 

16 

5 

3.8 

30.1 

17.8 

3.0 

29.8 

241 

4.6 

42.9 

13.5 

17 

11 

8.3 

38.3 

70.0 

11.6 

41.5 

680 

13.0 

55.9 

9.7 

18' 

12 

9.0 

47.4 

.    37.8 

6.3 

47.7 

348 

6.6 

62.5 

9.2 

19l 

7 

5.3 

52.6 

48.5 

8.1 

55.8 

394 

7.5 

70.0 

8.1 

20 

6 

4.5 

57.1 

25.5 

4.2 

60.0 

202 

3.8 

73.8 

7.9 

21 

5 

3.8 

60.9 

23.5 

3.9 

63.9 

193 

3.7 

77.5 

8.2 

22 

6 

4.5 

65.4 

25.0 

4.2 

68.1 

174 

3.3 

80.8 

7.0 

23 

7 

5.3 

70.7 

37.7 

6.3 

74.3 

265 

5.1 

85.9 

7.0 

24 

6 

4.5 

75.2 

20.5 

3.4 

77.7 

168 

3.2 

89.1 

8.2 

25 

4 

3.0 

78.2 

14.5 

2.4 

80.2 

97 

1.8 

90.9 

6.7 

26 

2 

1.5 

79.7 

12.0 

2.0 

82.1 

64 

1.2 

92.2 

5.3 

27 

2 

1.5 

81.2 

4.0 

0.7 

82.8 

23 

0.4 

92.6 

5.8 

28 

1 

0.7 

82.0 

2.0 

0.3 

83.1 

13 

0.2 

92.9 

6.5 

29 

3 

2.3 

84.2 

15.0 

2.5 

85.6 

65 

1.2 

94.1 

4.3 

30 

2 

1.5 

85.7 

7.0 

1.2 

86.8 

32 

0.6 

94.7 

4.6 

31 

1 

0.7 

86.5 

3.0 

0.5 

87.3 

14 

0.3 

95.0 

4.7 

32 

3 

2.3 

88.7 

6.5 

1.1 

88.4 

35 

0.7 

95.6 

5.4 

33 

1 

0.7 

89.5 

6.0 

1.0 

89.4 

31 

0.6 

96.2 

5.2 

34 

3 

2.3 

91.7 

7.2 

1.2 

90.6 

41 

0.8 

97.0 

5.7 

35 

2 

1.5 

93.2 

9.0 

1.5 

92.1 

46 

0.9 

97.9 

5.1 

38 

1 

0.7 

94.0 

2.3 

0.4 

92.4 

9 

0.2 

98.1 

3.9 

40 

2 

1.5 

95.5 

23.5 

3.9 

96.3 

55 

1.0 

99.1 

2.3 

41 

1 

0.7 

96.2 

5.0 

0.8 

97.2 

15 

0.3 

99.4 

3.0 

45 

1 

0.7 

97.0 

3.0 

0.5 

97.7 

14 

0.3 

99.7 

4.7 

47 

1 

0.7 

97.7 

2.0 

0.3 

98.0 

5 

0.1 

99.8 

2.5 

60  + 

3 

2.3 

100.0 

12.0 

2.0 

100.0 

13 

0.2 

100.0 

1.1 

All  farms 

133 

100.0 

602.2 

100.0 

5,247 

100.0 

The  data  in  Table  LIX  show  the  relation  of  yield  to  cost  per  ton.  In 
general  where'^the  yields  were  high  the  cost  of  production  per  ton  was  low 
and  where  the  yields  were  low  the  cost  was  high.  In  a  few  instances, 
however,  large  yields  were  not  produced  at  a  low  cost  per  ton.  Over  20 
per  cent  of  the  tomatoes  grown  on  these  farms  in  1920  were  grown  at  a  loss. 
In  general,  where  the  yield  was  less  than  7  tons  to  the  acre  the  crop  was 
produced  at  a  loss  and  the  average  yield  for  a  period  of  years  in  New  York 
State  is  less  than  this. 

Norton  found  that  as  the  acreage  of  tomatoes  per  farm  increased  the 
yield  also  increased,  due  probably  to  better  land  and  better  methods  of 
production.  The  man  and  horse  hours  per  acre  for  growing  the  crop,  and 
the  cost  of  harvesting  a  ton,  decreased  as  the  acreage  increased.     He  also 


390  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

found  that  as  the  distance  from  the  farm  to  the  receiving  point  increased 
the  charge  per  aero  for  use  of  land  decreased,  and  the  cost  per  ton  for 
hauUng  increased. 

Harvesting. — The  stage  of  maturity  at  which  tomatoes  arc  picked 
depends  upon  the  purpose  for  which  they  are  grown  and  the  distance  they 
are  to  be  transported.  As  a  rule,  tomatoes  grown  for  a  local  market 
are  not  allowed  to  ripen  as  much  before  being  picked  as  those  grown  for 
the  cannery.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  market  tomatoes  may  be  on 
hand  in  stores  two  or  three  days  before  they  reach  the  consumer,  while 
cannery  tomatoes  are  commonly  put  in  the  cans  the  day  they  reach  the 
factory.  In  addition  to  this,  tomatoes  for  canning  must  be  red  ripe  in 
order  to  be  of  good  color  when  canned. 

The  greater  the  distance  from  market  the  greener  the  fruit  should  be 
at  the  time  of  picking.  Where  tomatoes  are  to  be  in  transit  several  days 
it  is  a  common  practice  to  pick  them  while  they  are  still  grass-green  in 
color.  This  is  true  in  most  sections  of  the  South  where  tomatoes  are 
grown  for  distant  markets.  In  Florida,  until  within  the  past  few  years, 
tomatoes  were  picked  green  and  were  sorted  and  packed  immediately. 
Loss  through  disease  and  bruising  was  so  great  that  it  was  found  necessary 
to  use  a  ripening  house  as  a  means  of  taking  out  unmarketable  fruit 
before  shipping.  The  fruit  is  held  at  a  temperature  of  75  to  85  degrees  F. 
until  a  large  percentage  show  a  very  slight  red  coloration.  The  fruits 
are  then  removed  and  carefully  sorted;  the  colored  ones  are  graded, 
wrapped  and  packed  for  shipment,  while  the  green  ones  go  back  to  the 
ripening  room. 

Sando  (129)  has  the  following  to  say  regarding  the  use  of  the  ripening 
room  and  the  methods  of  handling  the  tomatoes  in  Florida: 

The  use  of  the  ripening  room  is  restricted  to  the  earl}^  months  of  shipping, 
when  the  weather  conditions  are  such  as  to  allow  the  fruit  to  be  shipped  in  a 
colored  condition.  The  temperature  is  generally  low  enough  to  prevent  too 
rapid  ripening,  and  when  the  fruit  reaches  the  North  the  temperature  is  still 
colder,  thus  allowing  the  fruit  to  be  kept  for  a  considerable  length  of  time  before 
it  becomes  too  ripe.  Later  in  the  season,  however,  it  is  inadvisable  with  the 
present  methods  of  handling  to  ship  colored  fruit.  The  tomatoes  are  kept  in 
the  ripening  room  for  two  or  three  days,  to  allow  infections  to  develop,  and  are 
then  sorted  and  shipped.  In  general,  after  warmer  weather  sets  in  the  green 
fruit  goes  directly  to  the  packing  house  from  the  field  and  is  graded  and  shipped 
at  once.  Sometimes  it  ripens  in  transit,  but  more  often  it  arrives  green  and  has 
to  be  ripened  at  the  terminal.  Frequently  the  fruit  is  packed  in  such  an  immature 
state  that  it  never  attains  its  normal  color.  In  such  instances  the  grower  loses 
both  in  reputation  and  in  financial  return. 

When  the  tomatoes  arrive  at  the  packing  .shed  they  are  dumped  into  bins, 
which  usually  are  large  enough  to  hold  several  crates.  From  these  bins  the 
grader  culls  all  undesirable  fruit  and  throws  the  good  fruit  into  other  bins,  assort- 
ing according  to  size.     Packers  standing  directly  in  front  of  the  bins  wrap  the 


SOLAN ACEOUS  FRUITS  391 

fruits  individually  in  special  tomato  paper  and  pack  them  in  4-quart  baskets. 
Each  basket  requires  smaller  fruit  at  the  bottom  layer  than  at  the  top,  where 
the  basket  is  wider,  but  in  every  basket  the  fruit  is  packed  very  tightly;  in  some 
cases  a  little  squeezing  is  necessary.  Six  baskets  are  placed  in  each  crate.  The 
top  is  considerably  bulged,  owing  to  the  close  packing  of  the  baskets. 

The  method  of  packing  crates  for  shipment  just  described  is  unfortunately 
the  one  generally  used  at  the  present  time,  but  there  is  another  method  that 
deserves  careful  consideration,  in  which  the  fruit  after  it  is  picked  is  washed  and 
handled  by  means  of  a  machine. 

The  field  crates  used  in  connection  with  the  machine,  and  also  by  many 
growers  who  do  not  use  a  machine,  are  made  of  hardwood  mill  edgings  that 
have  been  carefully  planed  and  smoothed,  especially  where  the  tomato  is  likely 
to  come  in  contact  with  them.  The  crate  is  open,  so  that  all  sand  and  dirt  fall 
through  and  do  not  injure  the  tomatoes  during  hauUng. 

When  the  tomatoes  arrive  at  the  packing  shed  they  are  dumped  into  a  large 
tank  at  the  end  of  the  machine,  which  contains  a  special  washing  solution  kept 
at  as  high  a  temperature  as  the  fruit  will  stand.  Were  the  solution  with  which 
the  tomatoes  are  washed  nothing  more  than  hot  water,  it  can  hardly  be  doubted 
that  the  thorough  removal  of  adhering  sand,  dirt  and  fungous  spores  would  be 
beneficial.  The  tomatoes  remain  in  this  supposedly  disinfectant  solution  for 
about  half  a  minute,  constantly  revolving,  and  are  pushed  toward  an  endless  chain 
which  carries  them  up  an  incline  where  a  spray  of  cold  water  rinses  off  the  wash- 
ing mixture.  Drying  is  accomplished  by  passing  the  fruit  between  two  layers  of 
sponges.  As  it  passes  over  the  rollers,  cullers  are  able  to  pick  out  the  undesir- 
able fruit  without  handling  the  remainder.  It  then  passes  over  a  special  sizer, 
from  which  the  several  grades  drop  on  tightly  spread  duck  inclined  planes  and 
roll  down  into  pockets.  The  tomatoes  are  not  jarred  or  bruised  in  any  way  in 
traveling  from  the  tank  to  the  packer. 

Careful  handling  is  essential  in  the  successful  production  and  shipping  of 
tomatoes,  and  machine  handling  in  the  packing  house  is  therefore  to  be  highly 
recommended.  Any  device  which  will  prevent  bruising  and  cutting  will  reduce 
the  opportunities  for  fungous  infe'ction  and  subsequent  loss. 

Refrigerator  cars  without  ice  are  preferred  by  the  growers  for  shipping, 
since  these  cars  are  fitted  with  ventilators  which  can  be  opened  and  closed  as 
weather  conditions  require.  Ventilated  cars  are  used  also  when  there  is  a  short- 
age of  refrigerator  cars,  but  owing  to  their  poor  construction  there  is  likelihood 
in  the  colder  regions  of  the  fruit  freezing.  When  the  cars  first  leave  the  South 
the  custom  is  to  have  the  ventilators  open,  but  as  they  move  farther  north  these 
are  closed  to  prevent  frost  injury.  When  the  cars  are  billed  through  to  Canada 
some  shippers  close  the  ventilators  as  soon  as  the  cars  are  filled.  Each  car  con- 
tains an  average  of  500  crates,  or  approximately  13  tons  of  fruit.  With  so  large 
a  volume  of  respiring  fruit  in  a  confined  space  it  is  obvious  that  a  condition  of 
oxygen  deficiency  may  easily  come  about. 

In  most  regions  of  the  South  the  fruit  is  packed  as  soon  as  it  is  picked 
and,  as  it  is  usually  very  green,  a  great  deal  of  the  ripening  takes  place 
after  it  reaches  the  market.  This  requires  extra  sorting  on  the  market 
and  results  in  considerable  loss. 


392  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

Tomatoes  picked  green  are  selected  on  the  basis  of  size  alone  and  Sando 
(129)  has  shown  that  size  is  no  criterion  of  maturity.  He  has  also 
shown  that  fruit  picked  in  this  condition  never  develops  the  qualit}^  of 
vine-ripened  fruits,  or  even  of  fruit  picked  after  it  has  begun  to  turn  pink. 
His  analyses  show  that  during  development  and  maturation  of  the  fruit 
there  is  an  increase  of  moisture  and  a  marked  increase  of  sugars.  Fruit, 
of  the  Livingston  Globe  variety,  at  14  days  of  age  contained  25.83  per 
cent  sugars  on  dry-weight  basis  and  at  56  days,  when  the  fruit  was  turning, 
the  sugar  content  was  46.03  per  cent.  When  ripe  the  sugar  content  was 
48.32  per  cent.  Starch  decreased  during  maturation  from  15.84  to 
2.65  per  cent,  the  most  marked  decrease  occurring  during  the  period  of 
transition  from  green  to  red. 

It  is  generally  conceded  that  tomatoes  shipped  to  northern  markets 
from  the  South  are  inferior  in  flavor  and  palatability  to  vine-ripened 
fruit.  Anatyses  of  green,  turning,  and  vine-ripened  fruit  reported  by 
Sando  (129)  show  that  green  fruit  ripened  at  room  temperature  is  lower 
in  sugar  and  higher  in  acid  than  vine-ripened  fruit.  The  ratio  of  sugar 
to  acid  was  5  :  54  in  the  artificially  ripened  fruit  and  6  :  34  in  the  vine- 
ripened  fruit.  Tomatoes  picked  when  they  were  turning  ripened  better 
than  those  that  were  picked  green.  The  composition  of  turning  tomatoes 
compared  more  favorably  with  vine-ripened  fruit.  The  sugar-acid 
ratio  was  6  :  78  in  the  former  compared  with  6  :  34  in  the  latter.  Sando 
states  that  differences  in  the  chemical  composition  between  vine-ripened 
fruit  and  commercially  picked  green  tomatoes,  ripened  in  the  laboratory, 
exposed  to  air  and  Hght,  are  not  sufficient  to  account  for  the  marked 
differences  in  flavor  and  palatability  between  commercially  ripened 
fruit  and  noiTnal  fruit.  He  thought  that  lack  of  ventilation  during  com- 
mercial ripening  might  be  responsible  for  the  difference.  He  analyzed 
tomatoes  which  were  ripened  in  a  non-ventilated  chamber  and  compared 
the  results  with  those  obtained  with  wrapped  fruit.  Comparisons 
were  made  between  (1)  tomatoes  commercially  picked  and  ripened 
without  ventilation,  (2)  commercially  picked  and  ripened,  wrapped 
with  one  paper,  (3)  commercially  picked  and  wrapped  with  three  papers, 

(4)  commercially  picked  and  ripened  unwrapped  at  room  temperature, 

(5)  picked  when  turning  ripened  unwrapped  at  room  temperature,  and 

(6)  vine-ripened  fruit.     Commenting  on  the  results  of  the  analyses  Sando 
(129)  writes  as  follows: 

There  are  striking  differences  in  the  analyses  between  the  acid  and  carbo- 
hydrate content  of  tomatoes  commercially  picked  and  ripened  without  ventila- 
tion and  the  same  fruit  ripened  when  exposed  to  the  air.  Without  ventilation 
the  acids  are  very  high  and  the  soluble  carbohydrates  (sugars)  are  low.  These 
facts  indicate  incomplete  oxidation  of  carbohydrates  to  carbon  dioxid  (CO2) 
with  the  consequent  accumulation  of  acid.  The  connection  of  these  changes  in 
composition  with  the  flavor  is  very  obvious.     The  non ventilated  fruit  was 


SOLAN  AC  sous  FRUITS  393 

markedly  inferior.  Although  the  reaction  was  decidedly  acid,  the  general 
flavor  was  insipid.  While  the  same  effect  was  not  produced  to  as  great  an  extent 
in  fruit  ripened  when  wrapped  with  paper,  it  nevertheless  takes  place.  Fruit 
wrapped  with  one  paper  had  a  noticeably  inferior  flavor;  it  was  not  as  poor  as 
the  sample  ripened  without  ventilation,  but  it  was  worse  than  that  of  green  fruit 
ripened  without  wrapping.  The  acid  content  of  fruit  ripened  without  ventila- 
tion shows  an  increase  of  approximately  138  per  cent  over  that  of  vine-ripened 
fruit;  that  of  fruit  ripened  while  wrapped  with  one  paper,  an  increase  of  approxi- 
mately 102  per  cent;  and  that  of  fruit  ripened  while  wrapped  with  three  papers, 
an  increase  of  about  58  per  cent.  The  soluble  carbohydrate  content  for  fruit 
ripened  without  ventilation  shows  a  decrease  of  nearly  21  per  cent  compared 
with  normal  fruit;  that  of  fruit  ripened  while  wrapped  with  one  paper,  a  decrease 
of  nearly  5  per  cent;  and  that  of  fruit  ripened  while  wrapped  with  three  papers, 
a  decrease  of  nearly  6  per  cent. 

Tomatoes  grown  for  nearby  markets  should  be  picked  while  they  are 
still  soHd  but  should  be  well  colored,  so  that  sorting  in  the  store  will 
not  be  necessary.  Sorting  injures  the  fruits  and  is  likely  to  increase 
decay  as  well  as  add  to  the  cost  of  handling. 

At  the  time  of  picking  it  is  desirable  to  remove  the  stems  since  they 
are  likely  to  injure  the  fruits  during  handling. 

Grading. — Before  tomatoes  are  packed  they  should  be  thoroughly 
graded  to  pick  out  all  inferior  specimens  and  to  separate  them  into  grades 
based  on  size,  stage  of  ripeness  and  other  factors.  The  U.  S.  Bureau 
of  Markets  suggest  three  grades:  U.  S.  Grade  No.  1,  U.  S.  Grade  No.  2, 
and  U.  S.  Grade  No.  3.     The  specifications  for  these  grades  are  as  follows : 

U.  S.  No.  1  shall  consist  of  tomatoes  of  similar  varietal  characteristics  which 
are  mature  but  not  overripe  or  soft;  well  formed,  fairly  smooth,  which  are  free 
from  damage  caused  by  sunscald,  catfaces,  growth  cracks,  freezing,  disease, 
insects,  hail,  scars,  or  mechanical  or  other  means. 

In  order  to  allow  for  variations  incident  to  proper  grading  and  handling, 
not  more  than  10  per  cent,  by  count,  of  any  lot  may  be  below  the  requirements 
of  this  grade  but  not  to  exceed  one-half  of  this  tolerance  shall  be  allowed  for  any 
one  defect. 

U.  S.  No.  2  shall  consist  of  tomatoes  which  are  mature  but  not  overripe  or 
soft,  which  are  free  from  serious  damage  caused  by  sunscald,  catfaces,  growth 
cracks,  freezing,  disease,  insects,  hail,  scars,  or  mechanical  or  other  means  and 
from  any  defect  or  injury  that  has  penetrated  through  the  fleshy  outer  wall  of 
the  tomato. 

In  order  to  allow  for  variations  incident  to  proper  grading  and  handling,  not 
more  than  10  per  cent,  by  count,  may  be  below  the  requirements  of  this  grade 
but  not  to  exceed  one-half  of  this  tolerance  shall  be  allowed  for  any  one  defect. 

U.  S.  No.  3  shall  consist  of  tomatoes  which  do  not  meet  the  requirements  of 
any  of  the  foregoing  grades. 

The  following  marking  requirments  for  size  and  definitions  of  terms 
are  also  given: 


394  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

The  minimum  size,  numerical  count,  or  description  of  pack  of  the  tomatoes 
in  any  package  shall  be  plainlj'  labeled,  stenciled  or  otherwise  marked  on  the 
package. 

"Minimum  size"  means  the  greatest  diameter  of  the  smallest  fruit  measured 
at  right  angles  to  a  line  running  from  the  stem  to  the  blossom  end.  It  shall  be 
stated  in  terms  of  whole  and  quarter  inches  as  2  inches  minimum,  2yi  inches 
minimum,  2}4  inches  minimum,  and  so  on  in  accordance  with  the  facts.  In 
order  to  allow  for  variations  incident  to  proper  sizing,  not  more  than  10  per  cent, 
by  count,  of  the  tomatoes  in  any  package  may  be  below  the  minimum  size 
specified. 

"Description  of  pack"  appUes  particularly  to  Cahfornia  conditions  and  shall 
be  designated  according  to  the  arrangements  of  the  tomatoes  in  the  top  layer 
in  a  lug  as  5-5,  5-6,  6-6,  and  so  on  in  accordance  with  the  facts.  The  figures 
given  represent  the  numbers  of  rows  of  tomatoes  each  way  in  the  lug  and  it  is 
understood  that  the  two  bottom  layers  of  tomatoes  in  any  lug  shall  not  contain 
more  than  one  additional  row  each  way,  i.e.,  that  in  a  5-5  pack  the  tomatoes  in 
the  two  bottom  layers  must  not  be  smaller  than  will  pack  6  rows  each  way  as  6-6. 

"Similar  varietal  characteristics"  means  that  the  tomatoes  shall  be  alike 
as  to  firmness  of  flesh  and  shade  of  color,  i.e.,  that  soft-fleshed  early-maturing 
varieties  shall  not  be  mixed  with  firm-fleshed  mid-season  and  late  varieties  or 
bright  red  varieties  mixed  with  varieties  having  a  purphsh  tinge. 

"Mature"  means  that  the  contents  of  the  seed  cavities  have  begun  to  develop 
a  jelly-  or  glue-Uke  consistency  and  the  seeds  are  fully  developed. 

"Well  formed"  means  the  normal,  typical  shape  for  the  variety. 

"Fairly  smooth"  means  not  noticeably  ridged,  angular,  indented  or  other- 
wise misshapen. 

"Free  from  damage"  means  that  the  tomatoes  shall  not  be  injured  to  an 
extent  readily  apparent  upon  examination. 

"Catfaces"  mean  irregular,  dark,  leathery  scars  usually  found  at  the  blossom 
end,  but  sometimes  on  the  sides.  If  shallow  and  no  greater  in  total  area  than  a 
dime  they  shall  be  allowed  in  U.  S.  No.  1. 

"Growth  cracks"  are  ruptures  or  cracks  radiating  from  the  stem  end.  If 
well  healed  over  and  not  longer  than  }^  inch  they  shall  be  allowed  in  U.  S.  No.  1. 

"Serious  damage"  means  surface  blemishes  covering  more  than  15  per  cent 
of  the  surface  in  the  aggregate  or  any  deformity  so  serious  as  to  cause  a  loss  of 
over  20  per  cent  in  the  ordinary  process  for  preparation  for  use. 

Packing. — The  methods  of  packing  tomatoes  and  the  types  of  package 
used  depend  largely  on  the  market  preference  and  the  distance  they 
are  shipped.  For  nearby  markets  tomatoes  are  usually  packed  in  open 
containers,  mainly  16-quart  hampers,  round  stave  baskets  holding  3  or  4 
pecks,  splint  baskets  holding  10  to  16  quarts,  boxes  and  crates  of  various 
kinds.  For  long-distance  shipping  the  tomatoes  are  commonly  packed 
in  flat  peach  baskets  which  are  placed  in  carriers  holding  4  or  6 
baskets.  The  baskets  commonly  used  in  these  carriers  have  a  capacity 
of  4  quarts.  The  tomatoes  should  be  carefully  placed  by  hand  in  the 
containers  and  packed  tightly  so  there  will  be  no  shifting  of  the  fruits. 


SOLANACEOUS  FRUITS  395 

Relatively  small,  flat  packages  are  desirable  for  tomatoes  since  they 
are  heavy  and  quite  soft,  and  are  likely  to  be  crushed  in  the  bottom  of  a 
tall  package,  such  as  the  ordinary  hampers,  or  even  the  round  stave  basket. 
The  package  should  be  substantially  built  so  that  it  does  not  give  when 
lifted.  The  4-  and  6-basket  carriers  are  probably  the  best  packages  now 
used  for  shipping  tomatoes  long  distances. 

While  tomatoes  grown  in  the  South  are  usually  wrapped  before  being 
packed  results  secured  by  Sando  (129)  indicate  that  the  practice  should 
be  discontinued.  The  wrapper  prevents  proper  ripening,  delays  cooling, 
interferes  with  quick  and  thorough  inspection,  favors  the  development  of 
disease  by  holding  moisture.     It  also  adds  to  the  expense. 

EGGPLANT 

The  eggplant,  also  called  Guinea  squash  in  the  South,  is  grown  for 
market  mainly  in  the  warmer  sections  of  the  United  States.  It  is  grown 
commercially  to  some  extent  as  far  north  as  Long  Island,  and  in  other 
regions  having  similar  climates.  In  regions  having  a  short  growing 
season  and  a  cool  climate,  they  are  seldom  grown  except  for  home  use, 
since  satisfactory  crops  cannot  be  produced  under  such  conditions. 

The  eggplant  is  of  relatively  minor  importance  commercially.  In 
1919  the  value  of  the  crop  grown  for  sale  was  $491,321,  as  reported  by  the 
Bureau  of  the  Census.  This  was  produced  on  1,712  acres  and  the  value 
per  acre  was  $287.  Nearly  three-fourths  of  the  crop  was  produced  in 
two  states.  New  Jersey  with  702  acres  valued  at  $165,131  and  Florida 
with  562  acres  valued  at  $203,445. 

History  and  Taxonomy. — The  eggplant  is  probably  a  native  of  India 
and  has  been  in  cultivation  for  a  long  time.  Some  authorities  claim  that 
the  eggplant  can  be  recognized  from  description  published  as  early  as  the 
fifth  century.  It  probably  was  not  known  in  Europe  at  the  time  of  the 
ancients. 

It  belongs  to  the  Solanaceae  or  nightshade  family  and  is  known  under 
the  botanical  name  Solanum  melongena.  Most  all  of  the  cultivated 
varieties  belong  to  botanical  varieties  of  the  species  mentioned.  The 
common  eggplant,  to  which  the  large-fruited  forms,  such  as  New  York 
Improved,  belong,  is  known  under  the  name  S.  melongeyia  var.  esculentum. 
The  plant  is  bushy  and  grows  to  a  height  of  2  to  4  feet;  the  leaves  are 
large  and  alternate  on  the  stems;  the  flowers  are  large,  violet  colored  and 
are  borne  singl}^,  opposite  the  leaves.  The  serpentine  or  snake  eggplants 
are  placed  under  the  variety  serpentinum.  The  fruit  of  this  group  are 
long  and  slender,  one  inch  or  less  in  diameter  and  12  to  15  inches  long. 
The  dwarf  eggplants  are  known  under  the  variety  name  depressian. 
These  produce  small,  weak,  spreading  plants,  nearly  smooth.  The 
leaves  are  small  and  thin,  and  the  flowers  are  much  smaller  than  those  of 
the  common  eggplant.     The  fruits  are  small,  pear-shaped,  and  purple  in 


396  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

color.  The  dwarf  forms  do  not  require  as  long  to  mature  as  the  common 
form  and  are  better  adapted  to  regions  having  a  short  growing  season. 

Culture. — The  cultural  requirements  of  the  eggplant  are  practically 
the  same  as  for  the  tomato  except  that  it  requires  a  longer  growing  season 
and  is  more  seriously  checked  in  growth  by  cool  weather.  To  grow  the 
crop  successfully  the  plants  must  not  be  checked  in  growth.  Seeds  are 
sown  in  a  greenhouse  or  hotbed  8  to  10  weeks  prior  to  the  time  the  plants 
are  to  be  set  in  the  field  or  garden.  The  plants  are  always  transplanted 
at  least  once  before  they  are  set  outdoors  and  pots,  plant  bands,  or 
other  individual  containers  are  often  used  so  that  there  will  be  as  little 
check  in  growth  as  possible  when  they  are  planted  in  the  field.  The  egg- 
plant is  a  hot-season  crop,  therefore,  the  plants  should  not  be  set  out 
until  all  danger  of  frost  is  over  and  the  weather  has  become  warm. 

The  plants  are  set  2  to  3  feet  apart  in  rows  3  to  4  feet  apart.  For 
the  large  growing  varieties  3  by  4  feet  is  none  too  far  apart. 

Warm,  sand,  or  sandy  loam,  well-drained  soils  should  be  selected, 
especially  in  the  North.  The  soil  should  be  rich.  Heavy  fertilizing  is 
usually  practiced.  Manure  is  very  often  used  and  this  is  supplemented 
with  500  to  1,000  pounds  of  a  high-grade,  commercial  fertilizer  with  part 
of  the  nitrogen  in  a  readily  available  form. 

Cultivation  given  the  eggplant  is  practically  the  same  as  that  given 
the  tomato. 

Varieties. — Relatively  few  varieties  of  eggplants  are  offered  by 
American  seedsmen.  Three  distinct  colors,  black,  purple  and  white  are 
grown  but  the  black-fruited  varieties  are  the  most  popular.  White- 
fruited  varieties  are  seldom  found  on  the  market.  Purple-fruited  sorts 
are  attractive,  but  the  smaller  size  of  the  fruit  is  objectionable  from  the 
market  standpoint. 

The  most  popular  varieties  are  New  York  Improved  and  Black 
Beauty.  Other  varieties  listed  by  seedsmen  are  Black  Pekin,  Early 
Long  Purple,  the  hardiest  of  all  varieties  and  adapted  to  the  cooler  parts 
of  the  North,  and  Ivory.  The  last  named  variety  is  a  white-fruited  sort 
originated  by  Dr.  Halstead  of  the  New  Jersey  Experiment  Station. 

Wilt  (Verticillium  alhoatrwn) .—This  disease  causes  a  yellowing  and 
wilting  of  the  foliage  and  gradual  defohation.  Affected  plants  make  a 
stunted  growth,  and  many  die  prematurely.  In  the  later  stages  the  wood 
of  affected  plants  shows  a  dark  discoloration. 

Crop  rotation  is  recommended  as  a  control  measure. 

Bacterial  Wilt  {Bacillus  solanacearum) . — This  disease  is  caused  by 
the  same  organism  responsible  for  the  bacterial  wilt  of  the  tomato. 

Fruit-rot  (Leaf  Spot,  Stem  Blight)  {Phomopsis  vexans). — This  is 
a  serious  fungous  disease  which  attacks  all  parts  of  the  plant  above 
ground.  The  spots  on  the  leaves  are  brown,  circular  or  oblong,  becoming 
irregular  with  age.     The  centers  of  the  spots  become  grayish  and  the 


SOLANACEOUS  FRUITS  397 

margins  almost  black.  Spots  on  the  fruit  start  with  grayish  or  light 
brown  blotches  which  develop  into  a  soft  rot,  frequently  covering  the 
entire  fruit.  The  disease  on  the  stem  is  most  common  on  the  seedlings 
where  it  causes  a  damping  off. 

Disinfection  of  the  seed  by  soaking  for  10  minutes  in  corrosive  sub- 
limate solution  1  to  1,000,  use  of  clean  soil  in  the  seed  bed  and  rotation  of 
crops  are  control  measures  recommended.  In  treating  seed  it  is 
important  to  rinse  the  seed  in  running  water  for  fifteen  minutes  after  soak- 
ing in  corrosive  sublimate. 

Eggplant  Flea-beetle  (Epitrix  fuscula). — This  small  black  flea- 
beetle  is  a  ver}^  serious  pest  of  the  eggplant.  It  is  especially  injurious 
while  the  plants  are  small. 

Dipping  plants  in  3-3-50  Bordeaux  mixture  at  the  time  of  trans- 
planting and  spraying  10  days  to  2  weeks  later  with  4-4-50  Bordeaux, 
to  which  has  been  added  4  pounds  of  arsenate  of  lead  paste  to  each  50 
gallons,  will  usually  keep  this  insect  under  control. 

Colorado  Potato  Beetle. — This  insect  is  often  very  injurious  to  egg- 
plant.    (See  discussion  under  potato,  Chapter  XXIII.) 

Eggplant  Lace-bug  {Gargraphia  solatii). — The  lace  bug  injures  the 
plant  by  sucking  the  juices.  This  insect  is  a  small  lace-bug,  about 
}i  of  an  inch  long. 

Spraying  with  whale  oil  soap,  8  pounds  to  50  gallons  of  water,  or 
with  nicotine  sulphate,  8  ounces  to  50  gallons  of  water  will  aid  in  keeping 
this  insect  under  control. 

Eggplant  Tortoise  Beetle  {Cassida  pallidula). — This  insect  is  quite 
widely  distributed  over  the  more  southern  portions  of  the  United  States, 
and  has  been  reported  from  some  of  the  northern  states.  Both  the 
larva  and  adult  injure  the  plant  by  eating  holes  in  the  leaves,  and  while 
they  seldom  cause  great  injury,  at  times  they  are  quite  destructive. 

This  insect  feeds  on  the  Irish  potato  and  some  of  the  wild  species 
of  Solanum.  Jones  (80)  found  that  the  larvae  could  be  kept  under 
control  by  spraying  with  arsenate  of  lead,  1  pound  of  powder  to  50  gallons 
of  water  and  with  arsenite  of  zinc,  powdered,  at  the  rate  of  1  pound 
to  50  gallons  of  water.  He  recommends  dipping  the  plants  in  some 
spray  mixture  at  the  time  of  field  planting. 

Harvesting. — The  fruits  of  the  eggplant  are  edible  from  the  time  they 
are  one-third  grown  until  they  are  ripe.  They  remain  in  an  edible 
condition  for  some  time  after  they  become  fully  grown  and  colored. 
A  heavier  crop  will  be  produced  if  the  fruits  are  removed  before  they 
reach  full  size,  but  they  should  be  well  colored  and  of  good  size  in  order 
to  sell  well  on  the  market. 

The  fruits  are  usually  cut  from  the  vines  since  the  stems  are  hard 
and  woody.  The  large  calyx  and  a  short  piece  of  the  stem  is  left  on  the 
fruit,  but  care  should  be  taken  to  prevent  the  stem  injuring  other  fruits 


398  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

in  the  package.  They  are  heavj^  and  should  be  handled  with  care  even 
though  they  are  not  as  perishable  as  the  tomato.  The  fruits  are  some- 
times put  in  paper  bags,  one  fruit  to  each  bag,  or  wrapped  in  paper, 
before  being  packed  for  shipping.  They  are  often  packed  in  berry  crates 
of  32  to  60  quarts  capacity  although  other  substantial  crates  are  used 
as  shipping  packages.  Before  packing  they  are  usually  graded  some- 
what to  separate  the  sizes  and  to  cull  out  inferior  fruits,  but  no  definite 
grades  are  recognized. 

PEPPER 

The  pepper  belongs  to  the  genus  Capsicum  and  is  very  distinct  from 
the  pepper  of  commerce,  which  is  the  fruit  of  Piper  nigrum,  belonging 
to  another  family.  Peppers  are  used  in  a  great  variety  of  ways.  Cay- 
enne pepper  or  red  pepper  of  commerce  consists  of  fruit  of  small  pungent 
varieties  ground  to  a  fine  powder.  Pepper  sauce  of  various  kinds  con- 
sists of  the  fruit  of  pungent  varieties  preserved  in  brine  or  strong  vinegar. 
Tabasco  sauce  is  said  to  be  the  juice  of  pungent  varieties,  expressed  by 
pressure.  Paprika,  a  Hungarian  condiment,  is  made  from  fruit  ground 
after  the  seeds  have  been  removed.  Peppers  are  used  in  pickles  of  various 
kinds  and  the  sweet  varieties  are  sliced  and  eaten  as  a  salad.  They  are 
used  in  stuffing  pitted  olives,  and  the  large  sweet  varieties  are  stuffed 
and  baked.  A  small-fruited  variety  of  peppers  is  used  for  decorative 
purposes. 

Peppers  have  very  much  the  same  cultural  requirements  as  the 
eggplant,  although  the  plants  will  withstand  lower  temperatures.  They 
thrive  best,  however,  in  a  warm  climate  and  a  long  growing  season. 
They  are  grown  to  a  very  limited  extent  in  the  eastern  portion  of  the 
United  States  farther  north  than  New  Jersey. 

The  important  states  which  produce  green  peppers  for  market  are 
New  Jersey,  California  and  Florida.  These  three  states  produced  about 
80  per  cent  of  the  crop  grown  for  sale  in  the  United  States  in  1919. 
New  Jersey  was  in  the  lead  with  5,416  acres  valued  at  $883,654  and  was 
followed  by  California  with  4,870  acres  valued  at  $753,740  and  Florida 
2,002  acres  valued  at  $801,111.  The  country,  as  a  whole,  produced 
15,290  acres  valued  at  $3,079,285  with  an  average  value  per  acre  of 
$201.  The  value  per  acre  in  Florida  was  $400,  in  New  Jersey  $163  and 
in  California  $155.  The  high  value  in  Florida  is  due  to  the  fact  that 
peppers  are  grown  there  for  shipping  to  the  northern  markets  during  the 
winter  and  spring  when  there  is  no  competition  and  prices  are  high. 

History  and  Taxonomy. — Peppers  probably  had  their  origin  in  tropical 
America,  though  numerous  so-called  species  have  been  attributed  to 
southern  Asia.  They  were  not  known  in  Europe  prior  to  the  discovery  of 
America  and  DeCandolle  (Origin  of  Cultivated  Plants)  stated  that  no 
ancient  Sanskrit  or  Chinese  name  is  known  for  the  genus  and  neither 


SOLAN ACEOUS  FRUITS  399 

were  the  Greeks,  Romans  nor  even  Hebrews  acquainted  with  it.  It  was 
first  mentioned  by  Peter  Martj^n  in  an  epistle  dated  September  1493  in 
which  he  says  Columbus  brought  home  "pepper  more  pungent  than  that 
from  Caucasus"  (Sturtevant  Am.  Nat.  24;  151.1890).  Peppers  were 
disseminated  rapidly  in  Europe  after  the  discovery  of  America.  Three 
varieties  were  figured  in  1542,  thirteen  in  1611,  twenty  in  1640  and  thirty- 
five  in  1699.  Linnaeus  recorded  two  species  in  the  first  edition  of  Species 
Plantarum  1753  and  three  additional  species  were  added  by  1797.  Oviedo 
(1514)  mentioned  the  use  of  peppers  in  tropical  America. 

Peppers  belong  to  the  Solanaceae  family  and  the  genus  Capsicum. 
While  early  botanists  recognized  many  species  Irish  (76),  after  a  very 
thorough  study  of  the  genus,  recognized  only  two,  C.  annuum  and 
C.  frutescens.  The  former  furnishes  all  the  leading  commercial  varieties 
now  in  cultivation.  In  tropical  countries  C.  annuum  is  a  biennial  or 
perennial,  while  in  temperate  latitudes  it  is  grown  as  an  annual.  Irish 
recognized  the  following  botanical  varieties  of  C.  annuum. 

Var.  conoides:  Fruit  oblong,  hnear;  calyx  usually  embracing  the 
base  of  fruit.  Fruit  usually  less  than  lli  inches  long;  peduncles  about  as 
long  or  longer.     Tabasco,  Cayenne  and  Orange  Red  Cluster  belong  here. 

Var.  fasciculatum:  Fruit  usually  more  than  1}^  inches  long;  pedun- 
cles shorter,  leaves  and  fruit  fascicled;  fruit  erect.  Yellow  Cluster  and 
Red  Cluster  belong  to  this  group. 

Var.  acuminatum  (Fingerhut) :  Leaves  and  fruit  not  fascicled.  Long 
Cayenne  and  Chilli  belong  here. 

Var.  Longum  (Sendt) :  Calyx  not  embracing  base  of  fruit  except  in 
the  Ivory  Tusk  Variety.  Long  Red,  Long  Yellow,  Black  Nubian  and 
Ivory  Tusk  belong  in  this  group. 

Var.  grossum:  Fruit  oblate  or  oblong,  truncated,  deeply  lobed 
fuiTOwed  and  wrinkled;  flesh  mild,  3^12  to  H  inch  thick.  Bell,  Bullnose, 
Ruby  King,  Sweet  Mountain  and  other  large  sweet  peppers  belong  in 
this  group. 

Var.  abhreviatum.  (Fingerhut) :  Fruit  subconical,  ovate  or  elliptical, 
slightly  longer  than  broad,  ^i  inch  to  2  inches  long.  Calyx  not  embracing 
the  base. 

Var.  cerasi forme:  Fruit  generally  smooth,  oval,  spherical,  cherry  or 
heart  shaped  ^-g  inch  to  13^-2  inches  in  diameter,  calyx  seated  on  the  base. 
Cherry  Pepper. 

Culture.- — Peppers  are  grown  in  very  much  the  same  way  as  eggplants 
and  tomatoes.  The  plants  are  started  in  greenhouses  or  hotbeds  in  most 
regions  and  are  handled  in  the  same  manner  as  tomatoes.  They  are  set 
out  after  all  danger  of  frost  is  over  and  the  weather  is  warm.  The  spac- 
ing of  the  plants  is  less  than  for  either  eggplants  or  tomatoes.  Rows  2}  2 
to  3  feet  apart  with  the  plants  about  18  inches  apart  are  the  common 
distances.     Pepper   plants   require   continuous   growth   for  satisfactory 


400  VEGETABLE  CHOPS 

results.  It  requires  at  least  three  months'  growing  season  to  produce  a 
profitable  yield  and  a  longer  period  is  desirable: 

Varieties. — Two  classes  of  peppers  are  grown,  those  which  produce 
pungent  or  "hot"  fruits  and  those  which  bear  mild  or  sweet  fruits,  the 
latter  being  known  as  "sweet  peppers."  The  most  popular  varieties  of 
the  pungent-fruited  peppers  are  Tabasco,  Long  Red  Caj^enne,  Red  Chilli, 
Red  Cluster,  Birdseye  or  Creole  and  Cherry.  Of  the  large-fruited,  sweet 
peppers.  Ruby  King,  Bell  or  Bullnose,  Chinese  Giant,  Sweet  Mountain, 
Neapolitan  and  Golden  Queen,  are  well-known  varieties.  These  are 
popular  for  serving  as  "stuffed  peppers"  and  for  use  in  salads. 

Pimiento  or  Spanish  Pepper  is  a  mild,  thick-fleshed  t3''pe,  which  has 
become  popular  in  the  United  States  during  recent  years.  It  is  grown  to  a 
considerable  extent  in  the  South  and  is  popular  for  canning.  The  term 
"pimento"  is  often  used  but  the  Spanish  term  "pimento"  is  applied  to 
Allspice,  a  species  of  aromatic  trees.  Pimiento  peppers  are  usually 
smoother  and  more  pointed,  have  thicker  flesh  and  are  heavier  than  Bell 
peppers.  According  to  Stuckey  and  McClintock  (156)  an  average  bushel 
of  ripe  Spanish  peppers  weighs  33  pounds: 

Of  this  amount  22.68  pounds  are  pulp  or  fleshy  part  used  for  canning,  5.15 
pounds  are  cores,  2.06  pounds  are  stems  and  3.09  pounds  are  seeds. 

In  a  bushel  of  ripe  Bell  peppers  there  are  22  pounds  of  pulp,  3 34  pounds 
of  cores,  H  pound  of  stems  and  J-s  pound  of  seed. 

Perfection  is  the  best  known  variety  of  pimiento  or  Spanish  pepper. 

Diseases. — Peppers  are  subject  to  several  diseases,  including 
Anthracnose  or  rot  {Colletotrichum  nigrum),  leaf  spot  (Cercospora  capsici 
and  mosaic,  but  usually  they  are  not  very  serious.  Anthracnose  is  a 
common  fruit  rot  which  sometimes  causes  considerable  loss.  Cook  (27) 
states  that  it  is  most  severe  on  sunburnt  fruit  and  while  little  effort  is  made 
to  control  it  the  most  satisfactory  treatment  is  Bordeaux  mixture. 
Mosaic  of  pepper  is  the  same  as  the  mosaic  of  tomato.  Leaf-spot  appears 
on  the  leaves  as  grayish-brown  spots.  Seriously  affected  leaves  wilt  and 
fall  off.  Disinfecting  the  seed  with  corrosive  sublimate,  1  to  1,000  for  10 
minutes,  use  of  disease-free  soil  for  the  seed  bed,  and  spraying  the  plants 
with  Bordeaux  mixture  while  still  in  the  bed  are  control  measures  recom- 
mended. In  seed-disinfection  it  is  important  to  rinse  the  seed  for  15 
uiinutes  in  running  water  after  soaking  it  in  corrosive  sublimate. 

Insects. — The  pepper  plant  is  seldom  injured  to  any  great  extent  by 
insects  although  it  is  sometimes  attacked  by  the  potato  aphis,  flea-beetle; 
potato  beetle  and  spinach  aphis. 

Harvesting. — The  stage  of  maturity  at  which  peppers  arc  picked 
depends  upon  the  purpose  for  which  they  are  grown  and  the  demand  on 
the  market.     The  large  sweet  peppers  are  usually  picked  while  still  green 


SOLANACEOUS  FRUITS  401 

in  color  when  they  are  sold  on  the  general  market,  although  there  is  some 
demand  for  red  ones.     Canners  demand  a  bright  red  color. 

The  fruits  will  remain  on  the  plants  for  some  time  after  reaching 
maturity  withoutjdeterioration.  They  are  usually  picked  by  snapping 
off  the  brittle  stems  with  the  hand. 

Peppers  are  packed  for  market  in  various  kinds  of  containers  including 
the  half-bushel,  bushel  and  half-barrel  hamper,  bushel  stave  basket,  and 
to  some  extent,  in  4-  and  6-basket  carriers. 

HUSK  TOMATO 

The  husk  tomato  (Physalis  pubescens)  is  cultivated  to  some  extent  in 
the  gardens  of  the  United  States,  but  it  is  not  grown  commercially.  The 
plants  are  decumbent  and  produce  a  small,  round  fruit  of  a  yellow  color 
inside  of  a  thin  husk.  There  are  several  native  species  of  Physalis  known 
as  "ground  cherry."  The  fruits  of  the  husk  tomato  are  sometimes  used 
for  preserves.  The}^  may  be  eaten  raw,  but  they  are  rather  insipid  in 
flavor. 

The  plants  are  easily  grown  and  are  handled  in  the  same  manner  as 
tomato  plants.  In  general  the  cultural  requirements  of  the  husk  tomato 
are  the  same  as  for  the  tomato. 


CHAPTER  XXVI 
THE  CURCURBITS  OR  VINE  CROPS 


Cucumber  Watermelon 

MUSKMELON  PUMPKIX   AND    SqUASH 

The  cucurbits  or  vine  crops  are  tender  annuals  grown  for  their  fruits. 
These  crops  thrive  only  in  hot  weather  and  will  not  withstand  frost. 
All  of  these  crops  belong  to  the  same  family,  Cucurbitaceae,  and  all  have 
similar  cultural  requirements  as  well  as  many  of  the  same  disease  and 
insect  pests.  From  every  point  of  view  they  should  be  grouped  together 
for  discussion.  All  of  the  plants  in  this  group  are  monoecious  (the 
stamens  and  pistils  being  in  separate  flowers  on  the  same  plant). 

CUCUMBER 

The  cucumber  is  an  important  vegetable  crop,  being  grown  in  the 
home  garden,  in  market  gardens,  on  truck  farms  in  the  South  for  shipping 
to  northern  markets,  as  a  forcing  crop  and  as  a  special  crop  for  the  pickle 
factories  in  various  parts  of  the  United  States.  The  cucumber  is  not 
important  from  the  standpoint  of  its  food  value,  but  it  is  widely  used  in 
salads  and  in  mixed  pickles. 

Statistics  of  Production. — In  1919  the  value  of  the  cucumbers  grown 
for  sale  in  the  United  States  was  $8,579,102.  The  area  of  land  devoted 
to  this  crop  was  51,643  acres  and  the  value  was  $166  per  acre.  Table  LX 
shows  the  acreage,  total  value  and  value  per  acre,  of  the  crop  in  the  impor- 
tant states  for  the  year  1919. 

Table  LX. — Acreage,  Total  Value  and  Value  per  Acre  of  Cucumbers  Grown 

IN  1919 

(U.  S.  Census  figures) 


State 


Acres  i       Value  of 

harvested  product 


^'alue 
per  acre 


Michigan 

New  York .  . 

Wisconsin 

Florida 

Illinois 

New  Jersey . . 

Ohio 

Pennsylvania. 
California. .  . . 

Indiana 

Colorado 


10,351 

$1,176,686 

$114 

4,840 

821,621 

170 

4,631 

i    588,543  1 

127 

4,549 

1,389,665 

305 

2,418 

451,608 

187 

1,995 

233,475 

117 

1,989 

382,950 

193 

1,925 

391,239 

203 

1,786 

313,432 

175 

1,685 

218,033 

129 

1.589 

238.392 

150 

402 


THE  CURCURBITS  OR  VINE  CROPS  403 

A  glance  at  the  table  shows  that  Michigan  produced  nearly  one-fifth 
of  the  entire  acreage  of  cucumbers  grown  in  the  United  States.  Four 
states,  Michigan,  New  York,  Wisconsin  and  Florida  produced  about 
one-half  of  the  crop.  In  most  of  the  important  producing  states,  except 
Florida  the  crop  is  grown  largelj^  for  pickles.  Other  states  producing 
over  1,000  acres  in  1919  are  South  Carohna,  Maryland,  Massachusetts, 
Virginia  and  Texas. 

History  and  Taxonomy .^ — The  cucumber  is  probably  a  native  of  Asia 
and  Africa  and  has  been  in  cultivation  for  thousands  of  years.  There  is 
evidence  that  its  culture  in  western  Asia  dates  back  at  least  3,000  years 
and  it  is  said  that  the  cucumber  was  introduced  into  China  from  the  west 
140  to  86  B.  C.  It  was  known  to  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans  and 
Pliny  even  mentions  their  forced  culture  (Sturtevant).  The  cucumber 
was  known  in  France  in  the  ninth  century  and  was  common  in  England  in 
1327.  It  was  grown  by  the  early  colonists  in  America  and  is  said  to  have 
been  grown  by  the  Indians  in  Florida  in  1539. 

The  cucumber  belongs  to  the  genus  Cucumis  of  which  there  are  20  to 
25  species  found  mostly  in  Asia  and  Africa,  only  two,  C.  sativus  and  C. 
Melo  being  of  much  importance  in  the  United  States.  A  third  species, 
C  Anguria,  West  Indian  Gherkin,  is  found  in  the  South  and  tropical 
America.  The  cucumber  is  a  traihng  or  climbing  plant  with  hairy, 
angular  stems  and  large  leaves  with  long  petioles.  The  flowers  are 
axillary,  the  staminate  being  more  numerous  than  the  pistillate. 

Soil  Preferences. — Cucumbers  can  be  grown  on  almost  any  type  of 
soil.  Where  earliness  is  a  prime  consideration  a  sandy  or  a  sandy  loam  is 
selected  for  cucumbers,  but  where  heavy  yields  are  most  important  a  good 
loam  or  clay  loam  is  preferred.  On  the  heavier  soils  the  yields  are  usually 
larger  and  the  bearing  period  longer  than  that  on  light  soils.  The  soil 
should  be  well  drained,  but  retentive  of  moisture,  especially  for  a  late 
crop.  In  the  South  where  cucumbers  are  grown  during  the  wanter  and 
spring,  for  shipping  to  northern  markets,  a  sandy  loam  soil  is  usually 
selected. 

Manures  and  Fertilizers. — Stable  manure  is  valuable  for  cucumbers 
but  it  is  not  essential  where  humus  is  furnished  by  turning  under  green- 
manure  crops,  and  the  principal  fertilizing  elements  are  supplied  in  the 
form  of  commercial  fertilizers.  Experimental  results  reported  by  Thorne 
(163)  indicate  that  on  a  gravelly,  alluvial  soil  in  southeastern  Ohio  green- 
manure  crops  and  commercial  fertilizer  give  practically  as  good  results  as 
manure.  An  application  of  400  pounds  of  acid  phosphate,  50  pounds  of 
nitrate  of  soda  and  160  pounds  of  muriate  of  potash  produced  slightly 
larger  yields  than  16  tons  of  manure  alone.  In  these  experiments  the 
crop  responded  more  to  phosphorus  than  to  nitrogen  or  potash.  All 
of  the  plats  in  these  experiments  produced  a  green-manure  crop  each  year. 
The  results  are  shown  in  Chapter  III. 


404  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

Where  manure  is  used  in  small  quantities  it  is  desirable  to  apply 
it  in  the  row,  especially  if  it  is  well-rotted.  After  it  is  placed  in  the  trench 
the  soil  should  be  thrown  back  over  it  and  the  seed  planted  over  the 
manure.  If  manure  is  used  in  large  quantities  it  is  best  to  apply  it 
broadcast.  Even  where  manure  is  used  some  commercial  fertilizer 
should  bo  applied.  On  a  fairly  productive  soil  400  pounds  of  acid  phos- 
phate and  100  to  150  pounds  of  nitrate  of  soda  in  conjunction  with  manure 
should  be  sufficient.  When  manure  is  not  used  some  green-manure  crop 
should  be  turned  under  to  supply  humus,  and  500  to  1,500  pounds  of 
fertilizer  apphed.  On  poor  soils  1,000  to  1,500  pounds  of  a  mixture 
containing  2  to  4  per  cent  nitrogen,  8  to  10  per  cent  phosphoric  acid  and 
5  to  6  per  cent  potash  is  recommended.  On  rich  soils  400  to  500  pounds 
of  acid  phosphate  and  a  little  nitrate  of  soda  to  give  the  plants  a  start, 
should  produce  good  yields. 

Planting.- — Since  the  plant  is  very  tender,  and  the  seeds  will  not 
germinate  in  a  cold  soil  planting  should  be  delayed  until  all  danger  of 
frost  is  over  and  the  ground  is  warm.  Market  gardeners  often  take 
chances  on  an  early  planting  since  earliness  is  an  important  factor. 
Some  growers  plant  seed  at  two  different  depths  at  the  same  time,  the 
shallow  planting  coming  on  first,  and  if  these  plants  are  killed  by  frost 
the  deeper  planting  coming  up  later  will  be  likely  to  escape.  Other 
growers  make  two  or  three  plantings  side  by  side  at  intervals  of  a  few 
days  apart  and  after  the  danger  of  injury  is  over  they  select  the  planting 
which  gives  the  greatest  promise.  The  plants  in  the  other  plantings  are 
then  destroyed. 

Planting  in  hills  was  formerly  the  universal  practice  and  is  still 
preferred  by  some  growers,  but  a  large  part  of  the  crop  is  planted  in  drills. 
When  planted  on  a  large  scale  planting  in  hills  is  seldom  practiced  at  the 
present  time.  When  the  hill  method  is  used  the  hills  are  spaced  4  by  5,  5 
by  5  or  6  by  6  feet  apart  depending  upon  the  soil.  On  light  soils  of  only 
moderate  fertility  4  by  5  feet  is  sufficient,  but  in  a  rich  soil  a  greater 
space  should  be  given.  In  the  hill  system  several  seeds  are  planted  in  each 
hill  and  after  the  plants  are  well  established  they  are  thinned  to  two 
plants.  The  main  advantage  of  the  hill  method  of  planting  is  that  the 
cultivator  can  be  used  in  both  directions.  In  the  drill  method  the  seeds 
are  sown  with  a  seed  drill  in  a  continuous  row  using  2  to  3  pounds  to 
the  acre  and  after  the  plants  are  well  established  they  are  thinned  to  stand 
12  to  18  inches  apart  in  the  row.  The  rows  are  spaced  4,  5  or  6  feet  apart. 
The  plants  are  much  better  distributed  in  the  drill  system  than  in  the 
hill  system  and  much  less  labor  is  required  in  planting. 

In  some  regions  cucumber  plants  are  started  under  cover  several  weeks 
prior  to  the  time  it  would  be  safe  to  plant  in  the  open.  In  the  vicinity 
of  Norfolk,  Virginia  the  seed  is  sown  in  rows  in  coldframes  as  for  field 
culture.     When  the  weather  gets  warm  the  sash  and  the  frames  are 


THE  CURCURBITS  OR  VINE  CROPS  405 

removed.  At  this  time  the  vines  are  usually  running  and  in  blossom. 
Ordinary  field  cultivation  is  given  after  the  frames  are  removed.  Market 
gardeners  in  the  North  often  start  cucumber  plants  in  the  greenhouse  or 
hotbed  and  later  set  them  in  the  field.  The  seeds  are  usually  planted 
in  pots,  plant  bands,  veneer  bands  or  tin  cans,  although  they  are  sometimes 
started  in  flats  and  transplanted  to  the  individual  containers  while  the 
plants  are  still  small.  It  is  important  to  have  the  plants  in  receptacles  so 
that  the  roots  will  not  be  disturbed  when  the  plants  are  set  in  the  field. 
This  method  of  starting  plants  is  practicable  only  for  an  early  crop  which  is 
likely  to  bring  a  high  price.  For  the  general  crop  the  extra  expense  of 
growing  the  plants  in  the  greenhouse  or  hotbed  would  not  be  justified. 

Cultivation.— Frequent  shallow  cultivation  should  be  given  as  long  as 
possible  without  injuring  the  vines.  Weeds  should  be  kept  down  by 
cultivation  until  the  vines  cover  the  ground  and  then  large  ones  should  be 
pulled  by  hand.  Hand  hoeing  is  advisable  to  keep  the  weeds  down  and  the 
soil  loose  between  the  plants  in  the  row. 

Varieties. — ^There  are  very  few  varieties  of  cucumbers  grown  in  the 
United  States.  The  White  Spine  is  the  best  known  and  most  widely- 
grown  variety.  It  is  grown  for  all  purposes,  but  is  especially  prized  as 
a  slicing  cucumber.  Davis  Perfect  is  also  a  popular  slicing  cucumber. 
For  pickhng  Boston  Pickling,  Chicago  Pickling  and  Fordhook  Pickling  are 
considered  valuable.  For  forcing  the  White  Spine,  and  crosses  between 
this  variety  and  the  English  forcing  type  are  commonly  used.  One  of 
these  crosses,  the  Abundance,  is  a  very  popular  forcing  variety  in  some 
sections.  The  English  forcing  varieties  are  not  very  popular  in  this 
country,  but  are  grown  to  some  extent  in  greenhouses  on  private  estates. 

Diseases. — Cucumbers  are  attacked  by  several  serious  diseases,  any 
one  of  which  may  make  production  unprofitable.  Diseases  and  insects 
are  the  main  limiting  factors  in  profitable  production  of  cucumbers  in 
most  regions.  The  most  important  diseases  are  bacterial  wilt,  anthrac- 
nose,  mosaic,  downy  mildew  and  angular  leaf  spot. 

Bacterial  Wilt  (Bacillus  tracheiphilus) . — This  disease,  as  its  name 
indicates,  is  caused  by  bacteria  which  are  carried  by  insects,  especially 
the  striped  cucumber  beetle.  Wilt  is  usually  the  first  disease  to  appear 
in  the  spring  and  often  causes  the  plants  to  wilt  and  die  when  they  are 
still  small.  It  may  continue  to  attack  the  plants  throughout  the  season. 
A  cut  stem  shows  a  sticky  ooze  which  will  adhere  to  the  finger  and  can  be 
drawn  out  into  threads.  This  disease  also  attacks  muskmelons,  water- 
melons, squashes  and  pumpkins. 

Since  the  disease  is  carried  by  insects  the  control  measures  consist 
mainly  of  keeping  them  in  check,  Pulhng  up  and  destroying  diseased 
plants  as  soon  as  noticed  may  prevent  spread  of  the  disease, 

Anthracnose  {Colletotriclium  legenarium) . — The  anthracnose  affects 
principally  the  leaves  and  stems  of  the  plant.     On  the  leaves  it  causes 


406  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

brown  spots,  3^4  to  }2  ii^^'^^  iii  diamcttM'.  The  older  leaves  are  attacked 
fii'st  and  when  the  disease  is  serious  they  are  often  killed.  It  spreads 
rapidly  in  warm,  moist  weather  and  the  plants  may  be  killed  before  the 
end  of  the  season.     This  disease  also  affects  miiskmelons  and  watermelons. 

Thorough  spraying  with  Bordeaux  mixture  will  hold  this  disease  in 
check  but  will  not  completely  control  it. 

Mosaic. — Mosaic,  sometimes  called  "  white  pickle, "  causes  a  mottling 
of  the  leaves,  stunting  and  yellowing  of  the  plants  and  a  warting  and 
motthng  of  the  fruits.  The  cause  of  mosaic  is  unknown,  but  it  is  certain 
that  it  is  carried  by  insects.  Keeping  insects  under  control  is  the  remedy 
for  mosaic. 

Dow^NY  Mildew  (Plasmopora  cubensis). — This  disease  attacks  the 
leaves  during  warm  moist  weather.  Angular  yellowish  spots  appear  on 
the  foHage  causing  a  yellowing,  followed  by  curling  and  death.  The 
oldest  leaves  are  attacked  first. 

Thorough  spraying  with  Bordeaux  mixture,  every  week  or  ten  days, 
beginning  when  the  disease  first  appears  will  afford  control. 

Angular  Leaf-sfot  {Bacterium  lachryynans) . — This  disease  appears 
as  small  angular  spots,  which  are  at  first  water-soaked  and  later  turn 
brown.  On  the  stem  the  disease  appears  as  lesions  somewhat  irregular 
and  elongated.     It  may  also  appear  on  the  fruits  as  water-soaked  spots. 

Treating  the  seed  with  corrosive  sublimate  1-1,000  for  five  minutes 
has  been  recommended.  Spraying  with  Bordeaux  mixture  will  aid  in 
holding  this  disease  in  check. 

Insects. — All  parts  of  the  cucumber  plant  are  attacked  by  insects 
and  most  of  the  pests  also  prey  upon  other  cucurbits.  While  some  of  the 
insects  seem  to  have  a  preference  for  a  particular  species  of  cucurbits, 
they  will  attack  others  when  the  one  they  prefer  is  not  available.  Thus 
the  squash  vine  borer  and  the  squash  bug  seem  to  prefer  squash  and 
pumpkin  plants  although  they  also  feed  upon  the  other  species. 

Britten  (16)  has  prepared  a  key  for  quick  identification  of  the  insects 
attacking  cucurbitous  plants.     This  key  is  as  follows: 

Boring  in  the  roots  and  stems — 

Small,  slender  larvae  tunneling  in  the  main  root  or  stem  below  ground. 

Striped  cucumber  beetle,  diahrotica  vitatta. 
Large,  stout  larvae  boring  in  squash  stems  above  ground. 
Squash  vine  borer,  Melittia  satyriniformis. 

Devouring  the  stem  and  leaves — 

Small  (1.2  mm.)  purplish,  jumping  springtails. 

The  garden  flea  or  springtail,  Sminthurus  hortensis. 
Small  (2  mm.)  black,  jumping  beetles  feeding  upon  the  young  leaves. 

Cucumber  flea  beetle,  Epitrix  cucumeris. 
Large  (5-7  mm.)  yellowish  beetles  feeding  upon  the  leaves. 

Body  yellow,  marked  with  three  longitudinal  black  stripes. 

Striped  cucumber  beetle,  Diahrotica  vitatta. 


THE  CURCURBITS  OR  VINE  CROPS  407 

Body' greenish  yellow,  marked  with  twelve  black  spots. 
Twelve-spotted  cucumber  beetle,  Diabrotica  xii-punctata. 
Large  (8-10  mm.)  hemispherical  beetle,  orange,  marked  with  black  spots,  or  yellow 
larva  with  black  spines. 
Squash  lady-beetle,  Epilachna  borealis. 

Sucking  sap  from  the  underside  of  the  leaves — 

Small  dark  green  or  brownish  plant  lice,  often  very  abundant. 
Melon  aphis,  Aphis  gossipii. 
Large  bright  green  plant  lice  usually  not  abundant. 

Squash  aphis,  Microsiphum  cucurbitae. 
Grayish-brown  bug  with  spicy  odor  (15  mm.  when  full-grown). 

Squash  bug,  Anasa  tristis. 
Small  greenish-white,  scale-like  insects  on  the  under  leaf  surface  of  plants  growing 
under  glass  or  near  greenhouses.     Pure  white,  moth-like  adults  resting  on  the 
leaves  and  flying  about. 
Greenhouse  white-fly,  Astcrochiton  vaporariorum. 

Striped  Cucumber  Beetle. — This  is  probably  the  most  serious  insect 
pest  of  the  cucumber  and  melon.  The  beetle  attacks  the'plants  as  soon 
as  they  come  up,  devouring  the  leaves  and  eating  the  stems.  The  main 
injury  is  done  by  the  overwintering  adults  attacking  the  young,  tender 
plants.  The  beetles  also  carry  the  cucumber  wilt  and  mosaic,  while  the 
larvae  burrow  into  the  roots  and  cause  the  plants  to  wilt,  but  this  injury 
is  seldom  noticed. 

Among  the  control  measures  recommended  are  (1)  covering  the  plants 
with  cheesecloth-covered  frames,  (2)  destroying  old  vines  and  trash  at 
the  end  of  the  season,  (3)  using  trap  crops  and  (4)  applying  repellents 
and  poisons.  In  addition  to  these  control  measures  it  is  advised  to  plant 
an  excess  of  seed  so  that  enough  plants  will  be  available  that  some  can 
be  saved.  Some  growers  plant  double  rows  and  keep  one  row  of  plants 
covered  with  air  slaked  lime  or  other  repellent  and  allow  the  beetles  to 
feed  on  the  other.  Growing  plants  in  greenhouses  or  hotbeds  is  a  pro- 
tection as  less  injury  is  done  to  plants  of  considerable  size  than  to  small 
ones. 

Covering  with  frames  is  practiced  to  some  extent  in  home  gardens  and 
on  small  commercial  plantings  where  the  crop  is  grown  in  hills.  This 
is  not  a  very  practical  method  to  use  on  a  large  scale. 

Burning  all  of  the  old  vines  in  the  fall  will  destroy  many  of  the  beetles 
and  remove  their  protection. 

Trap  crops  of  squash  or  beans  may  be  planted  early  to  attract  the 
beetles  and  they  can  be  poisoned  and  many  killed  before  the  regular  crop 
is  planted. 

Repellents,  such  as  air-slaked  lime,  ashes,  tobacco  dust  and  Bordeaux 
mixture  have  been  commonly  used.  Very  often  arsenate  of  lead  or  other 
arsenical  is  applied  with  the  dusts  or  with  the  Bordeaux  mixture.  The 
arsenical  kills  many  of  the  beetles,  although  it  does  not  give  complete 


408  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

control.  Recently  nicotine-impregnated  dust  has  been  recommended. 
White  (181)  has  reported  the  results  of  experiments  conducted  at  the 
Arlington  Farm,  Rosslyn,  Virginia,  in  the  use  of  nicotine  dust  for  the  control 
of  this  pest.  As  a  result  of  his  experiments  he  recommends  a  mixture 
containing  72  pounds  of  kaolin,  24  pounds  of  lime  and  4  pounds  of 
nicotine  sulphate. 

He  gives  the  following  summary: 

Nicotine  sulphate,  when  applied  in  a  mixture  with  a  du.st  to  young  cucumbers, 
melons,  and  related  crops  will  protect  them  from  the  ravages  of  the  striped 
cucumber  beetle. 

A  dust  mixture  containing  4  per  cent  nicotine  sulphate  proved  as  effective 
as  higher  percentages  of  nicotine  and  is  therefore  recommended  for  use  against 
this  insect. 

One-fourth  to  one-half  of  an  ounce  to  the  hill  proved  effective  for  one 
appUcation. 

The  dust  acts  as  a  repellent  as  well  as  a  contact  insecticide.  When  applied 
properly  it  drives  the  insects  from  the  cracks  in  the  soil  at  the  base  of  the  plant, 
thereby  preventing  serious  injury. 

The  dust  must  be  applied  so  as  to  prevent  the  beetle  from  escaping  by  flight. 
This  can  be  accomplished  by  a  duster  that  will  throw  a  good  volume  of  dust 
quickly  with  force. 

A  cheesecloth  sack  or  a  knapsack-bellows  type  of  duster  is  effective  on  small 


Apply  the  dust  to  the  plant  so  that  it  will  be  covered. 

Make  the  first  application  as  soon  as  the  plants  appear  above  ground.  The 
insect  makes  its  first  appearance  suddenly  and  in-  large  numbers  and  serious 
damage  may  result  if  this  application  is  neglected. 

The  number  of  applications  depends  upon  the  abundance  of  the  beetles  and 
weather  conditions. 

Keep  the  plants  and  the  soil  at  the  base  of  the  plant  well  covered  with  dust 
until  all  danger  of  injury  is  passed.  In  the  vicinity  of  the  District  of  Columbia 
this  period  is  normally  about  three  weeks. 

Twelve-spotted  Cucumber  Beetle. — This  insect  feeds  on  a  large 
number  of  food  plants,  including  the  cucurbits.  On  the  cucumber  and 
related  plants  its  injury  is  similar  to  that  of  the  striped  cucumber  beetle 
but  it  is  not  as  serious  in  the  North.  The  control  measures  are  the  same. 
The  larva  is  a  serious  pest  of  corn  in  the  South  where  it  feeds  on  the  roots, 
and  is  known  as  the  southern  corn  root-worm.  It  also  feeds  on  roots  of 
other  plants,  but  especiallj'^  the  grasses. 

Squash  Bug. — This  insect  is  a  true  bug,  which  has  a  very  offensive 
odor,  giving  rise  to  the  name  "stink  bug."  The  adult  lives  over  winter 
in  trash  and  comes  out  of  hibernation  and  attacks  the  plants  as  soon  as 
they  come  up.  The  insects  puncture  the  tissues  of  the  leaves  and  petioles 
and  suck  the  juices  causing  the  leaves  to  wilt.  The  eggs  are  brownish 
in  color  and  are  deposited  in  patches  on  the  underside  of  the  leaves. 


THE  CURCU REITS  OR  VINE  CROPS  409 

There  are  five  stages  in  the  development  of  this  insect  and  all  of  them 
often  can  be  seen  on  a  single  leaf. 

The  adult  is  resistant  to  contact  sprays.  Burning  the  trash  in  the 
fall,  trapping  the  adults  under  boards  in  the  spring,  hand  picking  of 
the  adults  and  destroying  the  eggs  are  suggested  control  measures. 
Spraying  with  nicotine  sprays  and  dusting  with  nicotine-impregnated 
dusts  are  also  recommended. 

Squash  Vine  Borer, — The  larva  or  borer  tunnels  in  the  main  stem 
near  the  surface  of  the  ground  and  usually  decay  sets  in.  The  first 
evidence  of  injury  is  the  wilting  of  the  entire  plant  and  this  is  often 
followed  by  death.  While  this  insect  attacks  all  cucurbits  it  prefers 
squash  and  pumpkin. 

The  control  measures  recommended  are:  (1)  Plant  early  squash  as 
a  trap  crop  to  be  destroyed  later,  (2)  cut  out  borers  as  soon  as  there  is  any 
evidence  of  their  presence,  (3)  cover  the  stems  with  soil  to  induce  new 
root-growth,  (4)  burn  old  vines  as  soon  as  the  crop  is  harvested,  (5) 
plow  deeply  in  the  spring  to  prevent  the  moths  from  emerging,  and  (6) 
practice  crop  rotation. 

Squash  Lady-beetle. — Nearly  all  lady-beetles  are  carnivorous  and 
are  therefore  beneficial  rather  than  injurious,  but  squash  lady-beetle  is  an 
exception.  The  larvae  feed  upon  the  underside  of  the  leaves  of  cucurbits 
and  the  adults  feed  upon  the  upper  side  at  the  same  time.  This  insect 
seems  to  prefer  the  squash  and  pumpkin,  but  will  feed  upon  melon  and 
cucumber  vines.  It  is  usually  a  minor  pest.  If  serious,  spraying  with 
arsenate  of  lead  or  other  arsenical  is  recommended. 

Melon  Aphls, — The  melon  aphis,  commonly  called  the  "melon 
louse"  is  a  small  sucking  insect  which  injures  the  plants  by  sucking  the 
juice.  It  feeds  mostly  on  the  underside  of  the  leaves  and  often  escapes 
notice  until  the  leaves  begin  to  curl.  It  attacks  a  large  number  of  plants, 
including  all  of  the  cucurbits,  and  cotton  in  the  South.  It  is  less  trouble- 
some on  squashes  and  pumpkins  than  on  cucumber  and  melon  plants. 

Chittenden  (23),  1918,  recommends  spraying  with  nicotine  sulphate 
1-1,000,  with  soap  as  a  "spreader"  or  "sticker."  His  formula  is  nico- 
tine sulphate,  40  per  cent,  3  fluid  ounces,  yellow  laundry  soap  1  pound 
and  water  25  gallons.  He  emphasizes  the  necessity  for  thorough  spray- 
ing to  cover  the  underside  of  the  leaves.  Zimmerly,  Geise  and  Willey 
(190)  show  that  control  of  this  insect  was  secured  in  Virginia  by  using 
nicotine-impregnated  dust  containing  3  per  cent  nicotine.  With  nicotine 
3  per  cent  and  hydratcd  lime,  98.84  per  cent  of  the  aphis  were  dead  24 
hours  after  dusting  cucumber  plants. 

The  Cucumber  or  Potato  Flea  Beetle. — This  insect  injures  the 
plant  by  eating  holes  in  the  leaves.     (See  Chapter  XXIII). 

Pickle  Worm  {Diapliania  nitidalis). — This  is  a  serious  pest  of 
muskmelons,  cucumbers  and  squashes  in  most  sections  of  the  South, 


410  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

and  occasionally  occurs  in  destructive  numbers  as  far  north  as  New  York, 
Michigan  and  parts  of  Canada.  The  young  larvae  burrow  into  the  tissue 
of  the  blossom  or  bud,  and  on  the  squash  they  may  complete  their  growth 
in  the  blossom,  but  on  cucumbers  and  muskmelons  they  usually  migrate 
to  the  fruit.  Some  burrow  down  into  the  stem  and  complete  their  growth 
there  and  cause  injury  to  the  vines,  but  the  greatest  injury  is  caused  by 
burrowing  into  the  fruit. 

The  newly  hatched  larva  is  about  1^{q  inch  long  and  the  full-grown 
caterpillars  attain  a  length  of  ^i  to  %  inch.  In  some  sections  of  the 
South  there  are  four,  and  occasionally  five,  generations  a  year. 

Spraying  with  arsenicals  has  not  been  successful  in  controlling  this 
pest.  Destroying  waste  fruits  and  vines  b}^  burning  or  composting  is 
recommended.  Other  control  measures  suggested  are  planting  early  so 
that  the  crop  may  be  harvested  before  the  second  and  third  broods  appear, 
and  growing  squash  vines  as  traps. 

Harvesting.^ — Cucumbers  are  picked  on  the  basis  of  size  rather  than 
age  and  the  size  is  determined  largely  by  the  purpose  for  which  they  are 
grown.  When  grown  for  use  as  slicing  cucumbers  they  are  picked 
when  they  are  6  to  10  inches  long.  For  pickles  they  are  harvested  when 
they  are  23^^  to  6  inches  long.  Very  small  cucumbers  are  in  demand  for 
mixed  pickles,  and  small  to  medium-sized  ones  are  preferred  for  dill 
pickles.  Small-sized  cucumbers  are  less  profitable  to  the  grower  than 
the  larger  ones  because  of  low  yields  of  the  former.  Frequent  picking  is 
important  as  the  cucumbers  grow  rapidly  and  soon  get  beyond  the 
marketable  stage.  None  of  the  fruits  should  be  allowed  to  ripen  on  the 
vines  as  the  development  and  maturing  of  the  seeds  causes  a  heavy 
drain  on  the  plant. 

Cucumbers  are  picked  by  hand,  care  being  taken  to  avoid  injuring  the 
vine.     The  stem  is  left  attached  to  the  fruit. 

Grading. — Cucumbers  for  slicing  are  usually  graded  on  the  basis  of 
size,  shape  and  general  appearance.  The  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Markets  and 
Crop  Estimates  suggests  three  grades,  U.  S.  Fancy  No.  1,  U.  S.  No.  1 
and  U.  S.  No.  2,  with  specifications  as  follows: 

U.  S.  Fancy  No.  1  shall  consist  of  cucumbers  which  are  fresh,  firm,  well 
shaped,  well  developed,  and  have  a  green  color  over  two-thirds  or  more  of  the 
surface  and  are  free  from  damage  caused  by  freezing,  mosaic,  or  other  disease, 
insects  or  mechanical  or  other  means. 

In  order  to  allow  for  variations  incident  to  proper  grading  and  handling  not 
more  than  10  per  cent,  by  count,  of  any  lot  may  be  below  the  requirements 
for  this  grade. 

U.  S.  Grade  No.  1  shall  consist  of  cucumbers  which  may  be  sliglitly  mis- 
shapen, but  are  fresh,  firm,  well  developed  and  are  free  from  damage  caused  by 
freezing,  mosaic,  or  other  disease,  insects  or  mechanical  or  other  means. 

The  same  tolerance  is  allowed  for  this  grade  as  for  U.  S.  Fancy  No.  1. 


THE  CURCURBITS  OR  VINE  CROPS  411 

U.  S.  Grade  No.  2  shall  consist  of  cucumbers  which  do  not  meet  the  require- 
ments of  the  foregoing  grades. 

The  following  marking  requirements  are  also  given; 

The  minimum  length  or  the  numerical  count  of  the  cucumbers  in  any  pack- 
age shall  be  plainly  labeled,  stenciled  or  otherwise  marked  on  the  package.  It 
shall  be  stated  in  terms  of  whole  or  half  inches  as  3  inches  min.,  3>^  inches  min., 
4  inches  min.,  and  so  on  in  accordance  with  the  facts. 

In  order  to  allow  for  variations  incident  to  proper  grading  and  handhng  not 
more  than  10  per  cent,  by  count,  of  the  cucumbers  in  any  package  may  be  below 
the  minimum  length  specified. 

In  addition  to  the  marking  requirements  and  the  statement  of  grade,  any  lot 
may  be  classified  as  Small,  Medium  or  Large  if  90  per  cent,  by  count,  of  cucum- 
bers conform  to  the  following  length  requirements  for  such  sizes:  "Small,"  under 
6  inches;  "Medium,"  6  to  9  inches  .inclusive;  "Large,"  over  9  inches. 

For  pickles  grading  rules  are  usually  specified  in  the  contracts,  but 
they  are  not  standard.  They  are  generally  based  on  size,  shape  and  gen- 
eral appearance,  the  same  as  slicing  cucumbers,  except  that  for  pickles 
smaller  sizes  are  in  demand. 

Packing. — Cucumbers  for  market  are  packed  in  various  kinds  of 
packages,  including  boxes,  baskets,  hampers  and  barrels.  Fancy  cucum- 
bers, grown  in  the  greenhouse  or  hotbed,  are  often  packed  in  special  flat 
boxes,  which  show  them  off  to  good  advantage.  Flat  baskets  are  also 
used  for  fancy  grades.  Most  of  the  field-grown  cucumbers  are  packed  in 
hampers,  mainly  of  one  bushel  capacity,  but  both  smaller  and  larger 
sizes  are  used.  The  round,  stave  basket  holding  one  bushel,  is  coming 
into  use  and  when  strong  it  is  a  good  package.  Veneer  barrels  are  still 
used  to  some  extent,  especially  for  lower  grades  and  for  all  grades  when 
the  prices  are  low.  The  barrel  is  not  a  good  package  for  cucumbers 
since  it  is  too  large  and  is  not  attractive  in  appearance. 

With  all  types  of  containers  the  cucumbers  should  be  well  placed 
and  tightly  packed  so  there  will  be  no  shifting  in  the  package.  Fancy 
grades,  especially  of  greenhouse  cucumbers,  are  usually  placed  by  hand  in 
the  package  and  attention  is  given  to  the  attractiveness  of  the  display 
when  the  package  is  opened. 

When  shipped  long  distances  cucumbers  are  usually  loaded  into 
refrigerator  cars  under  refrigeration.  For  short  hauls  local  freight  and 
express  shipments  are  common,  and  refrigeration  is  not  used. 

MUSKMELON 

The  muskmelon  or  melon  is  a  very  popular  crop  although  it  is  not 
an  easy  one  to  grow  in  most  regions  of  the  United  States.  It  is  grown  in 
home  gardens,  in  market  gardens  in  the  North,  and  as  a  truck  crop  or 
special  crop  in  a  few  of  the  eastern,  southern  and  western  states.     It 


412  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

thrives  best  and  develops  the  highest  flavor  in  a  hot,  dry  chmate,  and  for 
these  reasons  a  lai-ge  part  of  the  commercial  crop  is  produced  in  California, 
New  Mexico,  Arizona  and  Colorado  where  the  atmosphere  is  dry  dm-ing 
the  ripening  period.  In  these  states  the  crop  is  grown  under  irrigation. 
In  humid  climates  the  plants  grow  well,  unless  injured  by  diseases  and 
insects,  but  the  fruits  do  not  ripen  as  well  in  a  normal  season  as 
they  do  in  arid  regions.  If  the  weather  is  cloudy  or  rainy  during  the 
ripening  period  melons  are  rather  insipid.  In  addition  to  this,  foliage 
diseases  are  more  serious  in  humid  than  in  arid  regions.  Diseases 
not  only  reduce  the  yield  but  also  affect  the  quality  since  the  fruits 
do  not  develop  good  flavor  when  most  of  the  foliage  has  been  killed 
by  disease. 

The  commercial  production  of  the  muskmelon  is  of  recent  develop- 
ment. Prior  to  1870  it  was  seldom  seen  on  American  markets. 
It  was  first  grown  commercially  in  New  Jersey,  Delaware  and 
Maryland. 

It  was  not  until  after  the  Netted  Gem  was  introduced  by  Burpee 
in  1881  that  muskmelon  culture  developed  extensively  as  a  trucking 
industry  in  regions  located  long  distances  from  the  markets.  This 
type  of  melon,  which  is  small,  round  or  oval  in  shape  and  has  a  hard 
rind,  is  much  better  adapted  to  shipping  long  distances  than  the  varieties 
previously  grown.  A  large  percentage  of  the  crop  grown  for  distant 
shipping  at  the  present  time  is  of  this  type. 

The  muskmelon  industry  at  Rocky  Ford,  Colorado,  began  to  assume 
importance  about  1896  with  the  formation  of  the  Rocky  Ford  Melon 
Growers'  Association.  In  1905  the  Imperial  Valley  of  California  became 
important  as  a  melon-producing  region  and  is  now  by  far  the  most  impor- 
tant section  in  the  United  States. 

Statistics  of  Production. — The  muskmelon  is  an  important  vegetable, 
the  crop  grown  for  sale  in  1919  being  valued  at  $10,766,591.  The  area 
of  land  devoted  to  the  crop  was  78,436  acres  and  the  average  value  per 
acre  was  1137.  California  produced  nearly  28  per  cent  of  the  entire 
crop  grown  in  the  United  States.  Table  LXI  shows  the  acreage,  total 
value  and  value  per  acre  of  the  muskmelons  grown  in  the  important 
producing  states  in  1919. 

Six  other  states  produced  over  one  thousand  acres  of  muskmelons 
each. 

According  to  McKay,  Fischer  and  Nelson  (93)  21,402  cars  of  musk- 
melons were  shipped  in  the  United  States  in  1920.  About  four-fifths 
of  these  originated  in  Cahfornia,  Colorado,  Arizona,  New  Mexico  and 
Nevada.  This  does  not  take  into  consideration  local  shipments  of  melons 
by  express  nor  those  hauled  direct  to  local  markets  by  trucks  and  teams. 
It  does  indicate,  however,  the  importance  of  the  western  states  in  melon 
production. 


THE  CURCURBITS  OR  VINE  CROPS 


413 


Table  LXI. — Acreage,  Total  Value,  and  Value  per  Acre  of    Muskmelons 
IN  THE  Important  Producing  States  in  1919 

(Bureau  of  Census) 


State 


Acres 


I     Total  value       Value  per  acre 


California |  21,470 

Arkansas 8,999 

Maryland 4 ,  665 

New  Jersey 4 ,  231 

Indiana 4,182 

Colorado 4,007 

Arizona 3 ,  300 

Delaware 2,500 

Michigan 2,347 

North  Carolina 2 ,  130 

Texas 2,093 

Georgia |  1 ,  659 


$3,895,690 

$181 

389,144 

43 

568,731 

122 

371,428 

88 

498,244 

119 

691,230 

173 

465,739 

141 

203,393 

81 

465,489 

198 

351,543 

165 

189,442 

91 

157,384 

95 

History  and  Taxonomy. — Although  the  miiskmelon  has  never  been 
found  growing  wild  it  is  believed  to  have  originated  in  Asia.  It  is  not 
of  ancient  culture  as  no  reference  is  found  to  it  in  the  early  literature. 
Columbus  found  it  growing  on  Isabella  Island  in  1494  and  it  is  mentioned 
as  being  grown  in  Central  America  in  1516,  in  Virginia  in  1609,  and  along 
the  Hudson  River  in  1629. 

The  muskmelon,  Cucumis  Melo  Linn.,  belongs  to  the  family  Cucur- 
bitaceae  and  to  the  same  genus  as  the  cucumber.  The  fact  that  it  is 
so  closely  related  to  the  cucumber  has  led  growers  to  attribute  poor 
quality  of  the  muskmelon  to  cross-fertilization.  This,  however,  certainly 
does  not  normally  take  place.  Many  attempts  have  been  made  by  inves- 
tigators to  produce  a  hybrid  from  these  two  species  but  without  success. 
Pollen  from  the  cucumber  applied  to  the  stigma  of  the  muskmelon  flower 
does  not  result  in  fertilization. 

Authorities  recognize  the  following  botanical  varieties  of  Cucumis 
Melo  as  proposed  by  Naudin: 

Var.  reticulatus,  netted  melons :  Fruits  small  with  ribbed  and  netted 
surface. 

Var.  cantalu-pensis,  cantaloupe  melons :  Fruits  warty,  scaly  and  rough, 
with  hard  rinds,  surface  often  warted.  This  type  is  practically  unknown 
in  the  United  States.  The  name  cantaloupe  is  improperly  applied  to 
melons  in  general,  or  to  certain  types. 

Var.  inodorous,  winter  melon,  Cassaba  melon:  Fruit  with  little  of  the 
musky  odor,  ripening  late  and  keeping  into  the  winter;  surface  usually 
smooth. 


414  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

Var.  flexuosus,  snake  or  serpent  melon:  Fruit  long  and  slender,  1  to 
3  inches  in  diameter  and  18  to  36  inches  long,  curved  and  crooked.  Used 
to  some  extent  for  preserves,  but  grown  mostly  as  a  curiosit3^ 

Var.  Dudain:  Fruit  small,  about  the  size  of  an  ordinary  orange, 
surface  marbled  with  rich  brown,  very  fragrant;  grown  mostly  for  orna- 
ment and  strong  scent. 

Var.  Chito:  Mango  melon  or  lemon  cucumber;  fruit  small,  the  size 
of  a  lemon,  used  in  making  preserves,  called  mango  preserves.  The 
fruits  are  known  as  orange  melon,  melon  apple  and  vegetable  orange. 

The  melons  commonly  grown  in  the  United  States  belong  to  Cucumis 
Melo,  var.  reticulatus.  All  of  the  varieties  commonlj'-  seen  on  the  market, 
with  the  exception  of  the  cassaba,  belong  here. 

Soil  Preferences. — Muskmelons  are  grown  on  a  great  variety  of  soil 
types.  Where  earliness  is  an  important  factor,  as  in  most  regions  of  the 
North,  a  sandj^  loam  is  considered  the  best.  In  fact,  this  type  of  soil  is 
considered  almost  ideal  in  most  regions,  although  other  soils  are  used  in 
regions  where  the  growing  season  is  long.  The  soil  should  be  well  drained, 
as  melons  do  not  thrive  on  a  water-logged  soil.  Any  friable,  well-drained 
soil  is  satisfactory  provided  the  other  conditions  are  favorable  to  melon 
growing. 

Manures  and  Fertilizers. — Manure  is  considered  very  valuable  in 
growing  muskmelons  and  many  growers  in  the  North  believe  that  the 
crop  cannot  be  grown  successfully  without  it.  Very  little  experimental 
evidence  is  available  on  this  subject  although  Lloyd  (87)  has  reported 
results  of  experiments  carried  on  at  Anna,  Illinois,  for  3  years  and  at 
Kinmundy,  Ilhnois,  for  5  years.  The  soil  at  Anna  is  an  unglaciated 
yellow  silt  loam  and  at  Kinmundy  a  gra}^  silt  loam.  The  plats  consisted 
of  4  rows  of  16  hills  each  or  64  hills. 

Lloyd. gives  the  following  general  conclusions  as  a  result  of  these 
experiments: 

1.  Under  the  conditions  of  these  experiments  manuring  in  the  hill  is  far 
superior  to  broadcast  manuring  unless  a  very  large  amount  of  manure  can  be 
used. 

2.  A  large  amount  of  manure  used  in  the  hill  is  conducive  to  the  production 
of  a  large  jdeld  of  early  melons,  but  a  small  amount  of  manure  (2.25  to  3  tons  per 
acre)  carefully  applied  to  the  hills  produces  a  greater  net  profit  than  a  larger 
amount  (4.5  to  12  tons)  applied  in  a  similar  manner,  or  still  larger  amounts 
(16  to  20  tons)  appHed  broadcast,  even  though  the  yields  are  somewhat  smaller. 

3.  Although  the  highest  average  yield  in  the  field-planted  crop  and  the 
second  highest  in  the  transplanted  crop  were  produced  by  the  plats  receiving 
manure  both  broadcast  and  in  the  hills  the  expense  of  so  much  manure  may  so 
reduce  the  profits  that  they  will  be  less  than  from  some  other  treatment. 

4.  Mixing  the  manure  with-  the  soil  in  the  hill,  although  it  increases  the 
labor  of  planting  the  crop,  has  no  apparent  advantage  over  applications  of  tlie 


THE  CURCURBITS  OR  VINE  CROPS  415 

the  same  amount  applied  without  mixing,  except  possibly  in  the  case  of  a  large 
amount  applied  to  the  transplanted  crop. 

5.  The  addition  of  raw  rock  phosphate  to  a  moderate  amount  of  manure  in 
the  hills  may  increase  the  yield  of  early  melons,  the  total  yield  and  the  net 
profits  in  the  field-planted  crop. 

6.  The  use  of  a  complete  fertilizer  appUed  broadcast  in  addition  to  manure 
in  the  hill  is  conducive  to  the  production  of  large  total  yields  but  the  high  cost 
of  this  fertilizer  may  render  its  use  inadvisable. 

7.  The  application  of  this  same  fertilizer  in  hills  in  lieu  of  manure  is  attended 
with  great  danger,  especially  to  the  field-planted  crop  and  may  greatly  reduce 
the  yield  as  compared  to  no  fertilizer  treatment. 

8.  A  fair  crop  of  melons  may  sometimes  be  produced  by  the  use  of  steamed 
bone  alone  in  the  hills,  though  the  results  are  less  satisfactory  than  from  the  use 
of  manure,  especially  in  the  field-planted  crop. 

9.  On  the  type  of  soil  and  with  the  cultural  methods  used  for  the  field-planted 
crop  in  these  experiments  it  is  unwise  to  attempt  to  produce  a  crop  of  melons 
without  the  application  of  plant  food. 

A  considerable  percentage  of  the  muskmelon  crop  is  grown  without 
manure,  because  of  the  expense  and  the  difficult}^  of  securing  a  supply. 
In  the  South  and  West  dependence  is  placed  on  commercial  fertilizers 
and  green-manure  crops.  Production  can  be  maintained  without  manure 
if  the  soil  is  kept  supplied  with  humus,  and  a  sufficient  amount  of  the 
various  elements  is  supplied  in  the  form  of  commercial  fertilizers.  Where 
no  manure  is  used  1,000  to  2,000  pounds  of  commercial  fertilizer,  contain- 
ing 2  to  4  per  cent  nitrogen,  8  per  cent  phosphoric  acid  and  4  to  8  per  cent 
potash,  is  recommended.  The  amount  and  formula  should  be  determined 
largely  by  the  kind  of  soil.  On  a  sandy  soil,  deficient  in  potash,  the  higher 
percentage  of  this  element  should  be  used,  but  on  a  soil  containing 
considerable  clay  the  lower  amount  will  be  sufficient.  Recommendations 
of  various  authorities  range  from  500  to  2,000  pounds  of  a  high-grade 
complete  fertilizer  to  the  acre. 

Application  of  the  fertiKzer  in  hills  or  in  the  furrow  is  recommended 
where  the  amount  is  500  pounds  or  less  to  the  acre.  For  larger  amounts 
than  500  pounds  broadcast  apphcation  is  recommended  by  most  writers, 
although  some  suggest  applying  part  broadcast  and  part  in  the  hills  or 
rows.  Where  as  much  as  1,000  pounds  to  the  acre  are  used  no  advantage 
would  result  from  applying  part  of  the  fertiKzer  in  the  hill,  since  suflScient 
would  be  within  reach  of  the  plant  to  provide  for  its  needs  while  it 
is  small,  even  with  the  broadcast  application.  As  the  plant  grows  the 
roots  reach  out  so  that  the  feeding  area  increases  as  the  needs  of  the 
plant  increase. 

Growing  Plants. — A  large  part  of  the  muskmelon  crop  grown  in 
regions  having  a  short  growing  season,  is  produced  from  plants  started  in 
greenhouses,  hotbeds,  or  cold  frames.  The  seeds  are  usually  planted 
in  pots,  plant  bands,  or  other  receptacles,  since  the  seedlings  do  not  with- 


41G  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

stand  the  shock  of  transplanting  well  when  they  attain  considerable  size. 
Several  seeds  are  planted  in  each  receptacle  and  the  plants  arc  thinned  to 
one  or  two  when  they  are  well  established.  Some  growers  prefer  to  sow 
the  seed  in  flats.  Five  to  seven  days  later,  when  the  seed  leaves  have 
developed,  but  before  the  first  true  leaves  appear,  the  seedHngs  are 
transplanted  into  pots,  plant  bands  or  other  receptacles,  one  plant  to  each. 
It  is  very  important  to  transplant  the  plants  while  they  are  very  small, 
otherwise  growth  will  be  seriously  checked  and  many  plants  will  not  sur- 
vive. This  is  one  reason  that  planting  the  seed  in  pots  or  bands  is 
generally  reconunended. 

Planting  in  the  Field. — Muskmelon  plants  are  very  tender  and  the 
seeds  will  not  germinate  at  low  temperatures,  hence  planting  in  the  field 
should  be  delayed  until  all  danger  of  frost  is  over  and  the  soil  has  become 
warm.  Plants  should  be  set  before  they  develop  more  than  four  leaves 
and  before  they  become  pot-bound,  and  for  this  reason  the  seeds  should 
not  be  planted  more  than  4  or  5  weeks  before  it  is  safe  to  set  them  in 
the  field. 

A  large  part  of  the  commercial  crop  is  grown  from  seed  planted  in  the 
field.  While  the  hill  method  is  still  used,  drilling  the  seed  is  the 
more  common  practice  in  large  plantings  at  present.  The  methods 
of  planting  in  hills  and  in  drills  are  practically  the  same  as  described  for 
the  cucumber.  When  planted  in  drills  the  usual  rate  of  planting  is  2  to 
3  pounds  of  seed  to  the  acre. 

Cultivation. — Frequent  shallow  cultivation  should  be  given  until 
the  vines  interfere  with  the  operation.  Some  growers  continue  cultiva- 
tion after  the  vines  meet  between  the  rows,  but  it  is  probable  that  more 
harm  than  good  is  done  since  the  plants  are  easily  injured.  Moving  the 
ends  of  the  vine  with  a  stick  may  be  justified,  but  turning  them  from  one 
row  to  the  other  may  seriously  injure  them.  Cultivation  after  the  vines 
cover  a  considerable  portion  of  the  ground  is  probably  of  little,  if  any 
value  unless  weed  growth  is  heavy.  Large  weeds  may  be  pulled  by  hand 
after  cultivation  ceases.  Hand  hoeing  in  the  row  may  be  desirable  while 
the  plants  are  small. 

Varieties.^ — Simple  methods  of  classifying  varieties  of  muskmelons 
into  a  few  groups  or  classes  have  been  suggested  by  various  workers. 
One  method  is  based  on  color  of  flesh,  separating  varieties  into  groups: 
(1)  Those  with  green  or  white  flesh  and  (2)  those  with  salmon  or  yellowish 
flesh.  This  method  is  not  of  much  value  since  separating  the  varieties 
into  two  groups  is  no  great  help  in  identification.  Other  methods  of 
classification  that  have  been  suggested  are  based  on  size,  shape,  color,  and 
smoothness  of  the  surface — whether  netted  or  not  netted,  ribbed  or  not 
ribbed.  Rane  (121)  proposed  a  system  based  mainly  on  size  and  shape. 
Under  this  system  the  varieties  are  divided  into  eight  groups  or  types  as 
follows : 


THE  CURCURBITS  OR  VINE  CROPS  417 

1.  Jenny  Lind  Type. — "Small  size,  flattened  at  ends,  average  weight 
less  than  2%  pounds."  This  class  includes  Jenny  Lind,  Jersej^  Belle  and 
Emerald  Gem. 

2.  Rocky  Fobd  Type. — "Small  size,  oval  shape,  average  weight  less  than 
2^i  pounds."     This  includes  Rocky  Ford,  Netted  Gem,  Rose  Gem,  Paul  Rose. 

3.  Hackensack  Type. — "Medium  size,  flattened  at  ends,  average  weight 
3  to  6  pounds."  This  includes  Nutmeg,  Irondequoit,  Ivy  Gem,  Hackensack, 
Surprise  and  many  others. 

4.  Montreal  Type. — "Medium  size,  oval  shape,  ribbed,  average  weight  3 
to  6  pounds."  This  type  includes  Montreal  Nutmeg,  Green  Fleshed  Osage, 
Millers  Cream,  Tip  Top,  etc. 

5.  Cosmopolitan  Type. — "Medium  size,  oval  shape,  no  ribs,  average 
weight  3  to  6  pounds."  Cosmopolitan,  Netted  Beauty,  Superior  and  other  little- 
known  varieties  are  included  in  this  type. 

6.  Acme-Osage  Type. — "Medium  size,  oblong  shape,  average  weight 
3  to  6  pounds."  Osage,  Anne  Arundel,  Acme  and  Delmonico  are  the  best 
known  varieties  included  in  this  type. 

7.  Long  Yellow  Type. — "Large  size,  oblong  shape,  average  over  6  pounds." 
This  includes  Banana,  Granite  State  and  Long  Yellow. 

8.  Bay  View  Type. — "Large  size,  oval  to  oblong  shape,  average  over  6 
pounds."  Bay  View,  Large  Black  Paris,  Montreal  Market  and  Large  White 
French  belong  to  this  class. 


This  classification  is  of  little  value  at  the  present  time  as  many  of  the 
varieties  are  no  longer  grown  and  in  many  other  cases  the  names  have 
been  changed.  Any  method  of  classification  based  on  size  is  of  little 
value  at  best,  since  the  environment  is  such  an  important  factor  in  deter- 
mining size.  Under  this  classification  any  type  may  include  varieties 
possessing  such  opposing  characters  as  ribbed  and  not  ribbed;  netted  and 
not  netted ;  green  and  salmon  fleshed.  Since  these  characters  are  inherited 
it  would  seem  that  they  should  be  the  main  ones  used  as  a  basis  of  separa- 
tion in  any  method  of  classification. 

In  selecting  varieties  of  muskmelons  for  market  the  grower  should 
take  into  consideration  the  demands  of  the  consumer,  especially  with 
reference  to  size  of  melon,  color  of  flesh,  quality  and  surface  markings. 
After  determining  the  consumers'  preferences  he  should  consider  varieties 
with  reference  to  yield,  disease  resistance,  earhness,  shipping  quality, 
keeping  quality  and  other  factors  that  might  affect  profits.  Some 
varieties  of  high  quality  are  poor  shippers  and  for  that  reason  are  adapted 
only  for  home  use  and  for  local  markets.  Others  are  excellent  shippers, 
but  of  low  quality.  For  long-distance  shipping  the  varieties  should 
possess  good  shipping  .qualities,  such  as  a  thick  rind,  relatively  solid 
flesh  and  slow  ripening,  uniform  size  and  shape,  but  at  the  same  time  they 
should  be  of  good  quahty.  The  following  are  among  the  most  important 
varieties : 

27 


418 


VEGETABLE  CROPS 


Pollock  (Pollock  10-25,  Pollock  No.  25,  Salmon  Tinted  Pollock), 
the  most  important  commercial  variety  grown  in  the  United  States,  is 
produced  extensively  in  California,  Colorado,  New  Mexico,  Arizona  and 
Nevada.  It  is  an  early  variety,  small,  nearly  round,  heavily  netted, 
not  ribbed,  a  good  shipper,  and  a  heavy  yielder.  The  flesh  is  thick,  sal- 
mon colored,  and  of  good  quality. 

Rocky  Ford. — This  variety  was  developed  from  the  Netted  Gem 
introduced  by  Burpee  in  1881.  The  melon  is  nearly  round  or  shghtly 
oval,  not  ribbed,  heavily  netted;  skin  green,  netting  nearly  white;  flesh 
green,  fine  texture  and  good  flavor.  Strains  of  this  variety  are  popular  in 
many  regions. 


PMHip 

iw 

H 

Mj 

m"'     '  "  jBm 

^ 

^p- 

■  ^ 

-S 

1^ 

f^ 

|g 

LJ| 

H^^^^^^^^^v 

5 

^^K\ 

1 

m 

■ 

lii 

■■■dJBi|b|||hh| 

Fig.  30. 


-Varieties  of  muskmelons — A,  Burrell  Gem; 
D,  Irondequoit;  E,  Bender's  Surprise;  F, 


B,  Rocky  Ford;  C,  Pai 
Round  Jenny  Lind. 


Jenny  Lind. — One  of  the  smallest  melons,  flattened  at  the  ends  with 
knob  at  the  blossom  end,  ribbed  and  netted;  flesh  thin,  green  in  color, 
fine  in  texture,  and  very  sweet.  This  is  an  old  variety  of  high  quality, 
but  is  grown  to  a  very  limited  extent  at  the  present  time. 

Netted  Gem. — See  Rocky  Ford. 

Burrell  Gem. — (Also  called  Pink  Meat)  This  variety  was  introduced 
by  Burrell  in  1904.  The  fruit  is  oblong,  sloping  toward  both  ends,  ribbed, 
netted,  skin  dark  green;  flesh  deep  orange  or  salmon  in  color,  thick,  fine 
grained  and  of  good  quality.  This  variety  is  a  good  shipper,  but  is  not  a 
desirable  one  for  humid  regions  as  the  fruits  crack  badly  in  wet  weather. 

Hackensack — This  is  an  old  variety  of  good  size  (5  to  8  pounds). 
Fruit  heavily  ribbed,  netted;  flesh  light  green,  quite  thick,  good  flavor. 
This  is  not  an  important  variety  at  present,  except  for  local  markets 
since  it  is  too  large  to  ship  well. 


THE  CURCURBITS  OR  VINE  CROPS 


419 


Emerald  Gem. — A  small  flat  melon,  early  in  maturing  and  of 
high  quality.  It  is  a  good  home-garden  variety  and  is  grown  to 
some  extent  by  market  gardeners,  but  it  is  not  a  good  commercial 
variety  because  it  goes  down  rapidly  in  hot  weather.  The  fruits 
are  ribbed,  green  in  color,  smooth  (not  netted);  flesh  thick,  salmon 
colored  and  sweet. 

Osage  or  Miller's  Cream. — Medium  in  size,  oblong;  skin  dark 
green,  hghter  between  the  ribs;  flesh  thick,  firm,  orange  or  salmon  colored, 
good  quality.  This  is  an  old  variety,  but  is  still  grown  to  some  extent 
by  market  gardeners. 


Fig.  31. — Varieties  of  muskmelons — A,  Angelo;  B,  Milwaukee  Market;  C,  Hackeiisack; 
D,  Jenny  Lind;  E,  Emerald  Gem;  F,  Miller's  Cream. 

Tip  Top. — Medium  to  large  size,  oval  in  shape;  skin  slate  colored, 
partly  netted:  flesh  deep  salmon,  good  quality.  This  is  also  an  old 
variety  grown  only  to  a  slight  extent  at  present. 

Paul  Rose. — Medium  size  oval  in  shape;  flesh  deep  orange.  It  is 
supposed  to  be  a  cross  between  Netted  Gem  and  Osage.  Not  an  important 
variety  at  the  present  time. 

Irondequoit. — Large  (8  to  10  pounds),  nearly  round;  skin  green, 
but  yellowish  when  ripe,  well  netted;  flesh  deep  orange  thick,  sweet 
and  good  flavor.  This  variety  originated  at  Irondequoit,  New  York, 
and  was  grown  quite  extensively  by  market  gardeners  a  few  years  ago, 
but  is  now  largely  replaced  by  Bender's  Surprise,  because  it  does  not  hold 
up  well  on  the  market  and  has  a  tendency  to  crack. 

Bender's  SuRPRiSE.^Large,  oval  shape,  medium  early,  skin  light 
green  turning  to  a  golden  tint  on  ripening,  coarse  netting;  flesh  firm,  thick, 
deep  orange  color,  good  flavor.     This  variety  was  originated  and  devel- 


420  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

oped  by  Mr.  Bender,  a  market  gardener  living  near  Albany,  New  York. 
It  is  by  far  the  most  important  variety  grown  in  New  York,  constituting 
probably  90  per  cent  of  the  commercially-grown  crop. 

Montreal  Market. — Very  large  (8  to  15  pounds),  nearly  round, 
flattened  at  the  ends,  regularly  ribbed;  skin  green,  heavily  netted; 
flesh  very  thick,  light  green,  flavor  good.  This  variety  is  grown  to  only 
a  very  hmited  extent  in  the  United  States.  In  the  vicinity  of  Montreal, 
Canada,  the  growing  of  this  variety  for  the  markets  of  New  York,  Boston, 
Philadelphia  and  other  eastern  cities  has  attained  considerable  impor- 
tance. Greater  skill  is  required  to  grow  this  variety  than  to  grow  the 
varieties  commonl}^  produced  in  the  United  States.  (For  a  comprehen- 
sive discussion  of  the  culture  of  this  variety  of  muskmelon  read  Vermont 
Experiment  Station  Bull.  169.) 

Cassaba. — The  name  Cassaba  is  commonly  applied  to  a  type  of 
melon  grown  in  California,  and  to  some  extent  in  other  western  states,  for 
fall  and  earl}^  winter  use.  The  fruit  is  medium  in  size,  round  to  slightly 
oval  and  the  surface  is  smooth  or  nearly  so  (no  netting)  and  greenish- 
white  to  yellow  in  color.  The  flesh  is  thick,  greenish-white  in  color  and  of 
good  texture.  Varieties  listed  by  American  seedsmen  include  Cassaba, 
Honey  Dew,  Hungarian  Cassaba,  Golden  Beauty,  Pineapple,  Golden 
Honey  Cassaba  and  several  so-called  hybrids,  including  Golden  Hybrid 
and  Improved  Hybrid. 

Cassaba  melons  thrive  best  in  a  warm,  dry  climate  and  have  not  been 
successfully  grown  in  the  humid  regions  of  the  United  States. 

Diseases. — The  muskmelon  is  attacked  by  the  same  diseases  as  the 
cucumber  and  the  same  methods  of  control  may  be  applied. 

Insects. — All  of  the  insects  discussed  under  "cucumber"  also  attack 
the  muskmelon,  and  the  same  methods  of  control  are  recommended. 
In  addition  to  those  attacking  the  cucumber  the  melon  worm  {Dia'pha-nia 
hyalinata)  is  often  injurious  to  melons  in  the  South  and  occasionally  as 
far  north  as  New  York  and  Michigan.  The  adult  is  a  moth  with 
white  wings  marked  with  a  brown  band  along  the  margins.  The  full- 
grown  caterpillar  is  about  one  inch  long,  and  greenish-yellow  in  color, 
somewhat  mottled.  The  first  brood  feeds  on  the  foliage  and  does  little 
damage  to  the  fruit.  The  larvae  of  the  later  generations  attack  the  fruit, 
feeding  on  the  surface  and  burrowing  through  the  rind.  Decay  sets  in 
almost  immediately  and  the  fruits  are  worthless.  The  control  measures 
suggested  are:  (1)  Plant  squashes  ahead  of  the  melons  to  serve  as  a 
trap  crop;  (2)  spray  with  arsenate  of  lead,  three  pounds  of  paste  to  50 
gallons  of  water  and  (3)  destroy  the  vines  and  waste  fruits  as  soon  as 
the  crop  is  harvested. 

Harvesting. — The  time  of  picking  melons  depends  mainly  upon  the 
distance  from  market,  but  also  to  some  extent  upon  the  variety,  the 
temperature  at  harvest  time  and  the  method  of  shipping.     For  local 


THE  CURCU REITS  OR  VINE  CROPS 


421 


markets  the  fruits  should  be  left  on  the  vines  until  they  are  fully  ripe  but 
still  solid.  When  the  melons  are  to  be  shipped  they  are  picked  before 
they  are  fully  ripe.  For  relatively  short  hauls,  and  for  long  hauls  during 
comparatively  cool  weather,  they  may  be  picked  when  they  separate 
readily  from  the  stem.  This  stage  is  known  as  the  "full-slip."  When 
they  are  to  be  in  transit  10  days  or  more  it  is  best  to  pick  the  melons 
before  they  reach  the  full-slip  stage  of  maturity.  Results  of  studies 
reported  by  McKay,  Fischer  and  Nelson  (93)  on  melons  shipped  from 
points  in  California  to  New  York  City  during  1916  and  1917  show  the 
importance  of  picking  at  the  proper  time.  They  state  that  fully  10  per 
cent  of  the  melons  shipped  from  the  western  states  in  1915,  1916  and  1917 
were  so  immature  when  placed  upon  the  market  that  they  were  not 
palatable  nor  even  of  fair  eating  quality.  Green  melons  have  a  depress- 
ing effect  upon  both  demand  and  prices,  so  that  the  best  judgment  should 
be  exercised  by  pickers  in  selecting  melons  of  the  proper  stage  of  maturity. 
No  definite  rule  can  be  given  as  to  the  best  time  to  pick  melons,  but  by 
cutting  a  few  specimens  pickers  can  familiarize  themselves  with  the 
condition  of  the  fruit.  The  ease  with  which  the  fruits  are  separated 
from  the  stem  is  probably  the  best  method  of  determining  the  stage 
of  maturity. 

Careful  and  prompt  handling  after  the  melons  are  picked  is  very 
important.  Rough  handhng  causes  bruising  which  makes  them  more 
susceptible  to  decay.  Delay  in  getting  the  melons  packed  and  loaded  into 
refrigerator  cars  may  result  in  too  rapid  ripening  with  consequent  loss  on 
the  market.  Table  LXII  shows  the  effects  of  delayed  loading  of  musk- 
melons  in  the  Imperial  Valley  on  their  condition  on  arrival  in  New  York 
City  as  reported  by  McKay,  Fischer  and  Nelson  (93).  The  figures  are 
based  on  13  shipments  of  comparable  lots. 


Table  LXII. — Condition  of  Muskmelons  (Pollock)  Held  1,  4  and  8  Hours 

BEFORE  Loading  into  Refrigerator  Cars,  on  Unloading  in  New  York  City, 

and  Two  Days  Later,  1917 


On  unloading 

Two  days  later 

Condition  of  melons 

1  hr., 
per  cent 

4hr.. 
per  cent 

8hr., 
per  cent 

1  hr., 
per  cent 

4hr., 
per  cent 

8hr., 
per  cent 

8.4 
8.4 

16.7 
13.3 

27.0 

15.0 

1.2 

30.6 

20.9 

2.9 

34.7 

21.5 

3.3 

43.2 

Too  yellow — overripe 

Decayed  enough  to  spoil  for  food . . 

26.3 
4.4 

Grading. — No  uniform  and  specific  grading  rules  are  in  use  in  most 
muskmelon  growing  sections,  although  the  fruits  are  usually  graded  to 
some  extent.     The  grading  is  more  satisfactory  in  some  regions  than  in 


422  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

others.  Western-grown  melons  are  usually  better  graded  than  those 
grown  in  the  East,  but  none  are  as  well  graded  as  they  should  be.  The 
fruits  should  be  carefully  graded  with  reference  to  size,  shape,  color  and 
general  appearance.  Fully  ripe  melons  should  be  packed  separately 
and  disposed  of  on  nearby  markets,  as  they  will  not  stand  long  distance 
shipping.  Soft,  green,  off-type,  bruised,  and  very  small  melons  should 
be  discarded,  and  only  those  that  will  reach  the  market  in  good  condition 
should  be  packed. 

Packing. — Muskmelons  for  local  markets  are  seldom  packed,  but 
those  that  are  to  be  shipped  are  always  put  up  in  packages  of  some  kind. 
Crates  of  various  sizes,  holding  from  12  to  54  melons,  are  the  most  popular 
type  of  package.  Downing  (38)  gives  dimensions  of  16  crates  that  are 
in  common  use  in  the  United  States.  These  range  in  size  from  4  by  12 
by  221-^  inches  inside  dimensions  in  the  California  pony  flat  crate  to  12 
by  12  by  22}^  inches  for  the  California  standard  crate.  Downing  states 
that  the  large  number  of  sizes  could  be  reduced  to  six,  possibly  to  four 
types  without  interfering  with  the  standard  pack.     The  suggested  sizes 


Inches 

Standard 12       X  12       X  22>^ 

Pony 11       X  11       X  22K 

Standard  flat 4^  X  lS}i  X  223^ 

Pony  flat 4      X  12       X  223^ 

Jumbo 13       X  13       X  22>^ 

Jumbo  flat 5       X  14)^  X  22>^ 

Reducing  the  number  of  sizes  would  eliminate  much  confusion  and 
at  the  same  time  reduce  the  expense'  of  manufacture. 

In  packing  melons  in  the  standard  crate  they  are  placed  three  wide, 
three  deep  and  four  or  five  long,  the  crate  holding  36  or  45  fruits.  Smaller 
melons  are  packed  in  the  pony  crate  in  the  same  way  except  that  six  melons 
are  sometimes  placed  in  a  row  lengthwise  of  the  crate.  The  standard 
fiat  crate  holds  12  to  15  melons;  one  layer  deep,  three  melons  wide  and 
four  or  five  long.  It  is  important  that  the  melons  in  each  type  of  crate 
be  of  uniform  size.  When  the  crate  is  packed  every  melon  on  each  side 
should  touch  the  slats  and  the  crate  when  covered  should  bulge  slightly  on 
all  sides.  Unless  there  is  a  slight  bulge  when  the  melons  are  packed 
the  pack  is  loose  when  it  reaches  the  market  and  the  fruits  are  likely 
to  be  bruised  by  shaking  about  in  the  crate. 

Wrapping  muskmelons  in  paper  is  practiced  to  some  extent,  but 
is  not  to  be  recommended  as  the  paper  excludes  the  air,  keeps  the 
surface  moist,  delays  refrigeration  and  discourages  inspection.  Results 
of  experimental  shipments  of  wrapped  and  unwrapped  melons  shipped 
from     the    Imperial    Valley,    California,    to    New    York    City,    have 


THE  CURCURBITS  OR  VINE  CROPS 


423 


been    reported    in    Farmers    Bull.    1145.     The   results   are   shown    in 
Table  LXIII. 


Table  LXIII. — Condition   of   13   Experimental  Shipments   of  Wrapped   and 

Unwrapped  Mtjskmelons  in  New  York,  on  Unloading  and  Two  Days  Later, 

Season    1917 


On  un 

oading 

Two  days  later 

Condition  of  melons 

Wrapped, 
per  cent 

Unwrapped, 
per  cent 

Wrapped, 
per  cent 

Unwrapped, 
per  cent 

Too  soft  to  be  desirable.. 

Too  yellow — overripe 

Decaj^ed  enough  to  spoil  for  food 

Molded  enough  to  affect  appearance .  ,  . 

17.7 
8.7 
0.5 
3.1 

15.3 
4.6 
0.0 
0.2 

28.8 
17.7 
22.7 
42.4 

34.0 

2.7 
4.6 
2.7 

Two  daj's  after  unloading  from  refrigerator  cars  the  wrapped  melons 
were  slightly  firmer  than  the  unwrapped,  because  loss  of  moisture  was 
less  from  the  former  than  from  the  latter.  The  difference,  however,  was 
slight  and  did  not  compensate  for  the  increase  in  decay  and  mold  resulting 
from  wrapping.  Wrapped  melons  cool  more  slowly  than  those  not 
wrapped  because  the  paper  retards  circulation  of  cold  air  and  acts  to  some 
extent  as  an  insulator. 


WATERMELON 

The  watermelon  requires  a  long,  and  relatively  hot  growing  season  for 
its  best  development  and  for  this  reason  it  is  grown  largely  in  the  South. 
However,  the  crop  can  be  grown  successfully  in  many  of  the  northern 
states  if  early-maturing  varieties  are  selected.  In  regions  having  a  short 
growing  season  (4  months  or  less)  watermelons  can  be  produced  only  if  the 
plants  are  started  in  greenhouses  or  hotbeds  a  few  weeks  prior  to  time  for 
planting  in  the  field. 

The  watermelon  is  grown  in  many  countries,  but  is  more  popular 
in  the  United  States  than  elsewhere.  It  is  used  mainly  as  a  dessert, 
but  the  rind  is  used  to  some  extent  in  making  conserves  and  pickles. 

Statistics  of  Production. — The  watermelon  is  one  of  the  important 
truck  crops,  especially  in  the  southern  states.  In  1919  the  value  of  the 
crop  grown  for  sale  was  $10,466,133  and  159,088  acres  of  land  were 
devoted  to  its  production.  While  a  very  large  part  of  the  crop  was 
grown  in  the  southern  states,  it  was  of  considerable  importance  in  Mis- 
souri, California,  Indiana,  Kansas,  Illinois,  Iowa  and  Maryland.  Three 
states,  Georgia,  Texas  and  Florida  produced  over  40  per  cent  of  the  water- 
melons grown  in  the  United  States  in  1919  as  is  shown  in  Table  LXIV. 


424 


VEGETABLE  CROPS 


Table  LXIV. — Acreage,  Total  Value  and  Average  Value  per  Acre  of  Water- 
melons Grown  in  Important  Producing  States  in  1919 

(Census  Report,  1920) 


State 


Georgia 

Texas 

Florida 

Missouri 

South  Carolina. 

Oklahoma 

California 

Alabama 

North  Carolina. 

Indiana 

Virginia 

Arkansas 

Kansas 

Illinois 


Tennessee 

Maryland 

United  States . 


Acreage 

Total 

Value 

harvested 

value 

per  acre 

29,091 

$  1,300,553 

$45 

22,564 

1,064,106 

47 

14,646 

993,409 

68 

9,249 

615,696 

67 

7,779 

394,461 

51 

7,534 

410,771 

55 

7,341 

619,485 

84 

6,088 

318,093 

52 

5,983 

414,762 

69 

4,850 

446,902 

92 

4,730 

415,791 

88 

4,717 

319,684 

68 

4,400 

357,031 

81 

3,852 

289,605 

75 

3,475 

279,721 

80 

3,350 

312,895 

93 

3,005 

221,743 

74 

159,088 

10,466,133 

66 

Origin  and  History. — The  watermelon  is  a  native  of  Africa  where  it 
has  been  found  growing  wild  in  recent  times  (David  Livingstone,  Trav.  Res. 
South  Africa,  54,  1848).  It  was  mentioned  by  European  botanists  in 
the  sixteenth  century  and  is  said  to  have  been  introduced  into  Great 
Britain  in  1597.  It  was  grown  in  Massachusetts  as  early  as  1629  and  by 
the  Florida  Indians  prior  to  1664. 

Soil  Preferences. — The  watermelon  thrives  best  on  a  sandy  loam 
soil,  although  other  loams  are  used  for  the  production  of  this  crop  in  the 
South.  In  regions  having  a  short  growing  season  only  the  lighter  soils 
should  be  used  for  this  crop.  Good  drainage  is  essential  for  best  results 
in  growing  watermelons  as  they  will  not  thrive  in  a  water-logged  or  poorly- 
drained  soil. 

Planting. — The  time  and  method  of  planting  watermelons  are  prac- 
tically the  same  as  for  muskmelons,  except  that  they  require  more  room 
and  a  longer  growing  season.  In  regions  having  less  than  four  months' 
frost-free  period  watermelons  cannot  be  grown  successfully  unless  the 
plants  are  started  under  protection  three  or  four  weeks  prior  to  the  time 
it  is  safe  to  plant  them  in  the  field.  Under  most  conditions,  watermelon 
production  is  not  profitable  where  it  is  necessary  to  start  the  plants  under 
cover  in  order  to  mature  the  fruit  before  frost  in  the  fall.     For  home  use 


THE  CURCU REITS  OR  VINE  CROPS  425 

and  for  special  markets  starting  plants  in  greenhouses,  hotbeds  or  under 
plant  forcers  may  be  justified.  When  the  plants  are  to  be  grown  in 
greenhouses  or  hotbeds  it  is  best  to  plant  the  seeds  in  plant  bands,  flower 
pots,  or  other  receptacles  as  the  seedlings  do  not  withstand  transplanting 
very  well.  Several  seeds  are  planted  in  each  receptacle  and  when  the 
seedhngs  begin  to  crowd  they  are  thinned  to  a  single  plant,  or  two  or  three 
plants  in  each. 

Nearly  all  of  the  commercial  crop  is  grown  from  seed  planted  in  the 
field.  These  are  planted  10  to  15  in  a  hill  with  the  hills  spaced  8  by  8, 
8  by  10  or  10  by  10  feet  apart  each  way,  or  they  are  drilled  an  inch  or  two 
apart  in  rows  8  to  10  or  even  12  feet  apart.  In  either  case  the  seeds  are 
covered  to  the  depth  of  1  or  2  inches.  The  drill  method  is  the  more 
common  in  large  plantings.  In  the  hill  method  the  plants  are  thinned  to 
2,  3  or  4,  to  each  hill  as  soon  as  they  are  well  established  and  the  danger  of 
destruction  by  the  cucumber  beetle  is  past.  When  the  seeds  are  planted 
in  drills  the  plants  are  thinned  to  stand  singly  2  to  3  feet  apart  in  the 
row.  With  this  method  there  is  a  better  distribution  of  plants  over  the 
area  than  in  the  hill  system.  Plants  started  in  greenhouses  or  hotbeds 
may  be  planted  either  in  hills  or  in  drills.  When  setting  them  in  the 
field  the  work  should  be  done  carefully  to  avoid  disturbing  the  roots. 

When  manure  is  used  in  growing  watermelons  it  is  a  common  practice 
to  apply  some  or  all  of  it  in  the  furrow  or  under  the  hill.  In  either  case 
the  manure  is  covered  with  loose  soil  to  the  depth  of  2  or  3  inches. 
It  is  claimed  that  the  manure  hastens  the  germination  of  the  seeds  and 
the  development  of  the  seedlings.  This  is  undoubtedly  true  where  fresh 
manure  is  used  as  this  undergoes  heating  and  warms  the  soil.  In  the 
South  this  is  of  little  consequence,  but  in  regions  having  a  short  growing 
season  hastening  germination  and  growth  may  be  very  important. 

The  amount  of  seed  required  depends  upon  the  method  of  planting. 
When  planted  in  hills  the  usual  rate  is  2  to  3  pounds  to  the  acre,  while 
in  the  drill  method  4  to  5  pounds  are  ordinarily  used.  It  is  advisable 
to  use  a  liberal  quantity  as  the  cucumber  beetle  often  destroys  a  large 
percentage  of  the  plants. 

Cultivation. — Watermelons  should  be  given  about  the  same  cultiva- 
tion as  cucumbers  and  muskmelons.  When  the  plants  are  small  the 
soil  may  be  stirred  with  a  harrow  run  between  the  rows.  In  the  hill 
method  of  growing  the  harrow  may  be  run  in  both  directions,  leaving 
only  a  small  amount  of  space  at  the  intersections  that  would  need  to  be 
hand  hoed.  After  the  plants  grow  to  considerable  length,  but  before 
they  meet  in  the  middles,  a  small  cultivator  should  be  used  instead  of 
the  large  harrow.  When  the  vines  meet  cultivation  usually  ceases,  but 
large  weeds  should  be  pulled  by  hand. 

Varieties. — Rane  (122)  classified  the  varieties  of  watermelons  into 
six  classes  or  groups  based  on  the  external  characters  of  the  fruit.     The 


426  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

classes  were  subdivided  into  types  based  on  shape.     The  classification  is 
as  follows: 

1.  Light  green  class 

A.  Sweet  Heart  Type — Oval 

B.  Monarch  Type — Long 

2.  Medium  Green  Class 

A.  Icing  Type — Oval 

B.  Jackson  Type — Long 

3.  Dark  Green  Class 

A.  Black  Spanish  Tj'pe — Oval 

B.  Boss  Type — ^Long 

4.  Light  Striped  Class 

A.  Kolb's  Gem  Type — Oval 

B.  Cuban  Queen  Type — Medium 

C.  Rattlesnake  Type — ^Long 

5.  Dull  Striped  Class 

A.  Pride  of  Georgia  Type — Oval 

B.  Christmas  Type — Medium 

C.  Favorite  Type — Long 

6.  Mottled  Green  Class 

A.  Nabob  Type— Oval 

B.  Phinney  Type — Oblong 

In  selecting  varieties  of  watermelons  for  planting  one  should  consider 
the  purpose  for  which  the  crop  is  grown.  If  grown  for  home  use,  or  for 
a  local  market  quality  should  be  the  first  consideration,  but  size,  shape, 
yield  and  other  factors  must  also  be  considered.  When  grown  for  ship- 
ment the  melons  must  be  solid  and  have  a  relatively  thick  rind  or  there 
will  be  serious  losses  in  handling  due  to  breakage.  The  grower,  however, 
should  not  lose  sight  of  the  importance  of  quality,  for  low  quality  limits 
consumption  and  lowers  the  price.  A  good  market  melon  is  one  which 
stands  shipment  well  and  is  of  good  qualit3^  There  is  more  demand  for 
small  to  medium-sized  melons  than  for  very  large  fruits.  In  selecting 
varieties  for  planting  in  regions  having  a  short  growing  season  earliness  is 
an  essential.  The  following  varieties  are  among  the  most  important, 
although  no  attempt  is  made  to  list  them  in  the  order  of  their  importance : 

Cole's  Early. — This  is  a  small,  round,  white  or  grayish  melon  with 
green  stripes;  rind  thin;  flesh  Hght  pink,  crisp  and  of  good  flavor.  It  is  an 
early  variety  suitable  for  home  use  and  for  local  markets,  but  since  it  is 
very  brittle  it  is  not  satisfactory  for  shipping. 

FoRDiiooK  Early. — Medium  in  size,  round,  dark  green  in  color,  some- 
times with  faint  stripes  of  light  green;  rind  thin;  flesh  light  red,  crisp, 
quality  good.  This  is  a  good  variety  for  home  gardens  and  for  local 
markets  in  the  North  since  it  is  early,  but  it  is  not  a  good  shipper. 

Kleckley  Sweet. — Medium  to  large  size,  oblong  in  shapo;  dark 
green  in  color;  rind  thin;  flesh  bright  red,  firm  and  solid,  quality  excel- 
lent.    This  variety_has_been  considered  one  of  the  very  best  for  home 


THE  CURCURBITS  OR  VINE  CROPS  427 

gardens,  and  is  satisfactory  for  local  markets,  but  does  not  stand  shipment 
and  rough  handling. 

Halbekt  Honey. — Medium  to  large  size,  oblong  in  shape,  dark 
green  in  color;  rind  thin  and  brittle;  flesh  red,  fine  texture,  good  quality. 
This  melon  is  early  and  is  excellent  for  home  use  and  for  local  markets, 
but  because  it  has  a  thin,  brittle  rind  it  is  not  satisfactory  for  shipping. 

Florida  Favorite. — Medium  to  large  size,  oblong,  dark  green 
irregularly  striped  with  still  darker  green.  Rind  of  medium  thickness; 
rather  tough;  flesh  deep  red  and  of  fair  quality.  This  variety  is  fairly 
early  and  a  fair  shipper. 

Rattlesnake  (Augusta  Rattlesnake,  Georgia  Rattlesnake). 
Large  in  size,  long,  light  green  with  dark  green  longitudinal  stripes; 
rind  thick  and  solid;  flesh  red,  crisp,  tender,  quality  good.  This  is  a 
very  popular  shipping  variety  and  is  one  of  the  best  in  quality  of  those 
that  stand  shipping  and  rough  handling. 

Tom  Watson. — Large  in  size,  long,  dark  green  in  color;  rind 
medium  in  thickness  but  tough;  flesh  deep  red,  quality  only  fair. 
This  is  one  of  the  most  important,  if  not  the  most  important  shipping 
variety. 

KoLB  Gem. — Large,  round  or  oval  in  shape;  rind  very  thick  and  tough; 
flesh  stringy  and  coarse,  but  well  flavored  and  quite  sweet.  This  variety 
is  fairly  early,  an  excellent  shipper,  quality  fairly  good,  though  coarse 
in  texture. 

Alabama  Sweet. — Large  in  size,  oblong,  similar  in  appearance  to 
Florida  Favorite;  rind  medium  thick;  flesh  deep  red,  fine  grained,  solid 
and  sweet.  This  variety  is  considered  by  some  as  one  of  the  best  for 
shipping  purposes  and  is  also  mentioned  as  being  satisfactory  for  home 
use  and  for  local  markets. 

Other  varieties  that  deserve  mention  are  Jones,  Mclver,  Cuban 
Queen,  Monarch  and  Irish  Grey  The  last  one  is  a  relatively  new  name 
and  may  be  a  new  variety  of  merit. 

Preserving  Melon  or  Citron. — This  fruit  resembles  a  small  water- 
melon, of  light  green  color,  usually  round  or  oval  in  form.  The  flesh  is 
white  in  color  and  is  not  edible.  The  rind  is  used  for  making  conserves 
and  sweet  pickles,  and  the  melon  is  sometimes  fed  to  hogs.  It  is  also 
known  as  "stockmelon." 

The  preserving  melon  has  about  the  same  cultural  requirements  as  the 
watermelon.  It  crosses  readily  with  the  watermelon  and  has  been  used 
in  breeding  to  produce  a  wilt-resistant  watermelon. 

Diseases. — The  watermelon  is  attacked  by  a  number  of  diseases, 
the  most  important  ones  being  wilt,  root-knot,  anthracnose,  stem-end 
rot,  blossom-end  rot  and  ground  rot.  Both  the  vines  and  fruit  are 
affected.  Orton  (112)  gives  the  following  descriptive  key  to  watermelon 
diseases : 


428  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

A.  The  vines  wilt  suddenly,  beginning  at  the  ends  of  the  branches Wilt 

B.  The  vines  lack  vigor  and  the  melons  remain  small;  roots  greatly  enlarged 

Root-knot 

C.  The  leaves  show  dark  spots  and  tend  to  shrivel  up Anthracnose 

D.  The  fruit  is  spotted  with  small  pits Anthracnose 

E.  The  fruit  decays  at  the  stem  end Stem-end  rot 

F.  The  fruit  decaj^s  at  the  blossom  end Blossom-end  rot 

G.  The  fruit  decays  where  it  rests  on  the  ground,  with  abundant  white  mold 

Ground  rot 

Wilt  {Fusariuni  niveum). — Vines  affected  by  this  disease  wilt 
suddenly,  beginning  at  the  tips  of  the  branches.  One  branch  after  another 
wilts  until  the  whole  plant  is  dead.  The  woody  portion  of  the  stem  is 
discolored.  The  organism  lives  in  the  soil  and  grows  up  through  the 
water-conducting  tissues.     These  become  plugged  and  the  vine  wilts. 

No  satisfactory  method  of  control  has  been  discovered,  but  Orton 
states  that  the  following  measures  have  been  found  to  be  of  importance: 
(1)  Rotation  of  crops;  (2)  control  of  drainage  water  to  prevent  water 
from  an  infected  field  running  over  an  uninfected  field;  (3)  avoidance  of 
stable  manure;  (4)  control  of  livestock  and  (5)  resistant  varieties.  When 
land  becomes  infected  with  the  wilt  organism  it  should  not  be  used  again 
for  melons  for  8  to  10  or  12  years.  The  organism  grows  well  in  stable 
manure  hence  its  use  is  not  advised  where  wilt  is  serious.  In  addition 
to  this  many  stables  become  infected  from  portions  of  vines  brought  in 
with  hay  cut  from  the  melon  fields  after  the  crop  is  off.  Livestock  may 
spread  the  wilt  if  they  are  allowed  to  range  from  an  old  melon  field  to  other 
fields  which  may  be  planted  to  melons  later.  There  is  no  commercial 
variety  of  watermelon  that  is  very  resistant  to  the  wilt.  The  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture  has  produced  a  w'ilt-resistant  melon  by 
crossing  the  Eden  with  the  stock  melon  or  citron  and  the  North  Carolina 
Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  by  a  similar  method,  has  also  produced 
a  wilt-resistant  variety.  Neither  of  these  varieties  is  recommended  for 
general  use. 

Root-knot. — This  disease  is  produced  by  a  species  of  nematode 
(Heterodera  radicicola)  widely  distributed  in  the  South,  and  very  destruc- 
tive to  many  vegetables  and  other  crops.  For  a  discussion  of  the 
S3Tnptoms  of  the  disease  and  the  control  measures  read  the  discussion 
under  cabbage,  Chapter  XX. 

Anthracnose  {Colletotrichum  lagenarium). — The  anthracnose  is  one 
of  the  most  troublesome  diseases  of  the  watermelon.  It  affects  the  leaves, 
vines  and  fruit.  On  the  leaves  and  stems  the  disease  appears  as  irregular 
dark  spots.  The  leaves  dry  up  and  die  prematurely.  On  the  fruits  the 
spots  appear  at  first  as  water-soaked  areas,  but  later  they  are  sunken  and 
covered  with  a  pink  growth  of  spores.  These  spots  are  usually  small  and 
there  may  be  hundreds  on  a  single  fruit.     At  first  they  are  shallow,  but 


THE  CURCURBirS  OR  VINE  CROPS  429 

become  deeper  and  may  result  in  the  decay  of  the  flesh  when  followed  by 
other  fungi. 

Spraying  the  vines  with  4-4-50  Bordeaux  mixture  is  the  most  prac- 
ticable method  of  controlhng  this  disease  according  to  Meier  (95),  who 
has  made  a  considerable  study  of  anthracnose.  He  recommends  three 
applications,  the  first  when  the  vines  begin  to  run,  the  second  about  one 
week  after  the  melons  have  "set"  and  the  third  about  two  weeks  after  the 
second.  Other  measures  suggested  are  the  use  of  anthrac nose-free  seed, 
rotation  of  crops,  and  avoidance  of  cultivating  when  the  vines  are  wet. 

Stem-end  Rot  {Diplodia  sp.). — This  is  a  disease  which  affects  the 
fruit  at  all  stages  of  development  and  may  cause  serious  loss  in  transit 
even  if  it  does  not  show  at  the  time  of  loading.  The  first  indication  of  the 
disease  is  a  browning  and  shriveling  of  the  stem.  Decay  of  the  fruit 
begins  at  the  point  of  attachment  of  the  stem.  The  flesh  becomes  soft 
and  takes  on  a  water-soaked  appearance.  The  decay  progresses  rapidly 
and  under  moist  conditions  it  becomes  covered  with  a  dark  gray  mold. 
The  same  tj^pe  of  decay  may  begin  on  the  side  of  the  melon  where  there 
is  an  injury. 

Orton  (112)  suggests  the  following  control  measures:  (1)  Clean  up  the 
fields;  (2)  gather  and  destroy  all  cull  melons;  (3)  spray  for  anthracnose,  as 
the  fungus  which  causes  stem-end  rot  does  not  attack  a  healthy  vine, 
but  will  grow  on  leaves  and  stems  killed  by  anthracnose  and  thence  be 
carried  to  the  melons;  (4)  use  great  care  to  prevent  injury  in  handhng  and 
(5)  disinfect  the  stem  at  the  car.  The  disinfection  of  the  stem  at  the  time 
of  loading  the  car  is  the  most  important  control  measure.  The  material 
used  for  disinfection  is  starch  paste  with  copper  sulphate.  Orton  suggests 
the  following  method  of  preparation  and  application  of  the  paste: 

Place  3j>i  quarts  of  water  and  8  ounces  of  bluestone  in  the  kettle  and  bring 
the  mixture  to  a  boil  over  a  good  fire.  While  it  is  heating,  mix  4  ounces  of  starch 
with  a  pint  of  cold  water,  stirring  until  a  milky  solution  free  from  lumps  is 
obtained.  As  soon  as  the  bluestone  is  entirely  dissolved  and  the  solution  boil- 
ing, add  the  starch  mixture,  pouring  it  in  a  slow  stream  and  stirring  the  hot 
solution  vigorously  to  prevent  the  formation  of  lumps.  Continue  boiUng  and 
stirring  the  mixture  until  the  starch  thickens  evenly.  It  may  be  tested  at 
intervals  by  allowing  it  to  run  from  the  end  of  the  paddle.  This  should  not 
require  more  than  one  or  two  minutes'  boihng  after  the  addition  of  the  starch. 

The  paste  seems  to  be  more  readily  applied  when  made  up  fresh,  but  if  it  is 
desired  to  make  up  a  quantity  at  one  time  it  may  be  depended  upon  to  keep  a 
week  or  two  by  using  only  one-fourth  to  one-half  the  proportion  of  water  pre- 
viously specified  and  then  diluting  the  resultant  thicker  paste  to  the  proper 
consistency  as  needed  for  use.  Quart  glass  fruit  jars  with  glass  or  enamel  lined 
tops  make  convenient  containers. 

It  is  recommended  that  this  be  apphed  at  the  car,  for  experiments  with  stem 
treatment  in  the  field  were  less  effective  because  the  handling  rubbed  off  the 


430  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

paste  or  split  the  stem.     The  following  method  has  proved  to  be  practical  and 
effective. 

As  the  melons  are  packed  in  the  car,  have  the  stem  ends  turned  outward 
while  a  second  man  or  boy  with  a  sharp  knife  cuts  off  a  portion  of  the  stem  and 
applies  a  dab  of  paste  to  the  fresh  surface.  One  man  can  accomplish  this  treat- 
ment without  interfering  with  the  speed  of  loading  and  can  keep  up  with  two 
packers.  A  quart  of  paste,  costing  only  a  few  cents,  will  be  needed  for  each  car. 
To  this  expense  must  be  added  the  labor  cost  of  one  boy  or  man  for  the  number 
of  hours  required  to  load  the  car. 

Blossom-end  Rot. — This  disease  is  common  in  man}--  fields,  but 
little  is  known  about  it.  According  to  Orton  it  begins  (or  seems  to  begin) 
with  an  imperfect  fruit.  Later  these  fruits  are  invaded  by  decay-pro- 
ducing fungi.  The  Diplodia  or  stem-end  rot  is  the  most  common,  but 
other  fungi  also  occur.  Prompt  destruction  of  cull  melons  is  the  control 
measure  suggested. 

Ground  Rot  (Sderotium  rolfsii). — This  rot  begins  on  the  side  of  the 
melon  in  contact  with  the  soil.  The  fungus  causing  this  disease  is  very 
common  in  the  South  and  attacks  many  other  plants.  A  heavy  growth 
of  white  mold  and  the  formation  of  manj^,  roundish  brown  bodies  the  size 
of  buckshot  characterize  this  disease.  Decay  begins  where  there  is  an 
injury  to  the  surface  of  the  melon.  The  only  control  measure  is  the 
destruction  of  the  affected  fruits. 

Insects. — The  watermelon  is  affected  by  the  same  insects  as  the 
cucumber.  The  melon  aphis  is  more  injurious  to  the  watermelon  than 
to  either  the  cucumber  or  muskmelon.  For  a  discussion  of  the  insect 
pests  of  the  watermelon  see  under  "Cucumber." 

Harvesting. — It  is  very  important  that  watermelons  be  at  the  proper 
stage  of  maturity  when  they  are  picked,  but  it  is  ver}^  difficult  for  the 
inexperienced  to  determine  when  they  are  ripe.  With  no  other  vegetable 
or  fruit  is  there  so  little  evidence  of  a  change  from  immaturity  to  maturity. 
Neither  the  size  of  the  fruit  nor  the  color  of  the  rind  gives  an  indication  of 
ripeness.  Perhaps  the  sound  emitted  when  the  fruit  is  thumped  with  the 
finger  is  the  most  reliable  means  to  determine  the  stage  of  ripeness  of 
watermelons.  Most  varieties  give  forth  a  metalHc,  ringing  sound  when 
they  are  green  and  a  more  muffled  or  dead  sound  as  they  become  more 
mature.  The  greener  the  melon  the  more  metallic  the  sound.  The  sound 
is  not  the  same  for  all  varieties  so  that  some  should  be  pulled  when  they 
still  give  forth  a  somewhat  metallic  sound,  while  others  should  be  left 
on  the  vines  until  the  sound  is  quite  a  dead  one.  It  is  only  by  experience 
that  one  becomes  able  to  select  the  ripe  fruits,  but  with  precaution  and  by 
cutting  a  melon  occasionally  the  knack  is  quite  readily  acquired.  The 
fruit  is  pulled  or  cut  from  the  vine  with  about  two  inches  of  stem,  and  this 
is  very  important  since  by  applying  a  disinfectant  to  the  stem  the  stem- 
end  rot  can  be  prevented  from  developing  in  transit. 


THE  CURCURBITS  OR  VINE  CROPS  431 

Handling. — After  the  watermelons  are  pulled  and  placed  in  rows  in 
the  field  they  are  usually  loaded  on  wagons  and  hauled  direct  to  market, 
in  the  case  of  local  markets,  or  to  cars  when  they  are  to  be  shipped.  Most 
of  those  shipped  are  loaded  four  deep  in  box  cars  and  in  some  cases,  in 
cattle  cars.  The  cars  are  usually  cleaned  then  a  layer  of  clean  straw  is 
placed  on  the  floor.  The  number  of  melons  loaded  in  a  car  varies  from 
800  to  1,500  depending  upon  the  size  of  the  fruits.  When  the  fruits 
average  35  pounds  in  weight  and  are  loaded  four  deep,  a  car  34  feet  long 
will  carry  800.  If  the  average  weight  is  25  pounds  the  car  loaded  in  the 
same  way  will  contain  about  1,100  melons. 

For  express  shipments  very  early  in  the  season  watermelons  are  some- 
times packed  in  barrels,  using  excelsior,  straw  or  other  Htter  for  packing 
material.     This  method  of  packing  is  used  to  a  very  limited  extent  only. 

PUMPKIN  AND  SQUASH 

These  two  crops  are  discussed  together  since  the  requirements  are 
almost  identical,  and  since  some  types  of  the  two  are  distinguished  only  by 
experts. 

The  various  types  and  varieties  of  squash  are  of  much  greater  com- 
mercial importance  than  the  pumpkin.  According  to  the  Bureau  of 
Census  the  commercial  pumpkin  crop  of  1919  was  valued  at  S 137, 626, 
while  the  squash  crop  had  a  value  of  $685,245.  It  is  probable  that  some 
of  the  so-called  pumpkins  were  really  squashes.  The  two  crops  together 
were  valued  at  $822,871  in  1919,  and  the  area  of  land  devoted  to  their 
production  was  8,426  acres.  The  leading  states  in  the  production  of 
pumpkins  were  California  with  1,132  acres  valued  at  $39,030  and  New 
Jersey  with  429  acres  valued  at  $22,550.  Massachusetts  was  in  the  lead 
in  squash  production  with  1,052  acres  valued  at  $175,743,  and  Cali- 
fornia was  second  with  942  acres  valued  at  $107,804.  While  nearly  all 
states  produced  some  squashes  none,  except  the  two  mentioned,  grew 
over  400  acres. 

Origin  and  Taxonomy. — There  is  still  considerable  uncertainty  as  to 
the  origin  of  the  pumpkin  and  of  the  various  types  of  squashes  since  they 
are  not  known  in  the  wild  state.  Some  authorities  believe  that  two  of 
the  species  Cucurbita  Pepo  and  C.  maxima,  are '  natives  of  tropical 
America,  while  the  third,  C.  moschata  is  believed  to  be  a  native  of  eastern 
Asia.  Others  believe  that  all  three  species  are  native  of  America.  It  is 
quite  certain  that  some  of  the  types  were  grown  by  the  North  American 
Indians  before  the  coming  of  the  white  men,  since  the  earliest,  records 
refer  to  pumpkins,  or  squashes  as  being  grown  by  the  natives  along  with  the 
corn.  Several  types  grown  by  the  Indians  have  been  described  in 
some  of  the  writings  of  the  explorers  and  early  settlers. 

Botanists  refer  all  of  the  cultivated  varieties  of  pumpkins  and  squashes 
to  three  species,  Cucurbita  Pepo,  C.  maxivia  and  C.  7noschaia.     All  three 


432  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

of  these  contain  varieties  commonly  called  squash  while  only  one,  C.  Pepo, 
contains  the  types  generally  recognized  by  botanists  and  horticulturists 
as  pumpkins.     Goff  (56)  has  given  the  following  key  to  the  species: 

A.  Leaves  harsh;  cal3'-x  tube  campanulate,  with  fleshy  or  corky  segments. 

1.  Lobes  of  leaves  rounded,  scarcely  iiny  sinuses  between,   peduncles 

round.     C.  maxima.  ^A^^^^-^o""^-^"^'^^ 

2.  Lobes  of  leaves  acute,  sinuses  between  them  often  deep,  peduncles 

obtusely  pentagonal.     C.  Pepo.         p.,...*-*«^i-w^ 

B.  Leaves  soft;  calyx  tube  very  short,  or  scarcely  any,  segments  flat,  usually 

dilated,  foHated  at  apex.     C.  moschata.   ^-***-.*^,iLl** 

Based  on  the  fruits  only  Goff  (56)  suggested  the  following  classification : 

1.  Fruit  stem  not  grooved  longitudinally.     Cucurbita  maxima. 

[(a)  Fruits   distinctly  ringed   about  the   blossom  end.    American    Turban, 

Bay  State,  Essex  Hybrid  and  Red  China  belong  here. 
(b)  Fruits  not  ringed. 

1.  Fruits  distinctly  oblate.     None  of  the  newer,  well-known  varieties 

belong  in  this  group. 

2.  Fruits  roundish,  or  more  or  less  oblong.     Boston  Marrow,  Hubbard, 

Warted  Hubbard,  and  Golden  Hubbard  belong  here. 

2.  Fruit  stem  distinctly  grooved  longitudinally. 

A.  Fruit  stem  Httle  expanded  at  its  union  with  the  fruit.     Cucurbita  Pepo. 
(a)  Fruits  with  conspicuous  projections  about  the  circumference. 

1.  Fruits  strongly  flattened,   "pattypan"  shaped.     White  Bush  or 

Patty  Pan,  and  Yellow  Bush  or  Yellow  Patty  Pan  are  the  best 
representatives  of  this  group. 

2.  Fruits  more  or  less  oblong.     No  well-known  variety  belongs  to  this 

group. 
(6)  Fruits  warty. 

1.  Fruits  club-shaped,  the  neck  more  or  less  crooked.     Summer  Crook- 

neck  and  Giant  Crookneck  are  representatives  of  this  group. 

2.  Fruits  oval.     BraziHan  Sugar  belongs  here,  but  this  is  not  an 

important  variety. 

3.  Fruits  roundish  or  oblate.     Common  Yellow  Field  Pumpkin,  Sugar 

and  Connecticut  Field  Pumpkin  belong  here. 

4.  Fruits  oval  or  cyhndrical.     Italian  Vegetable  Marrow,  Long  White 

Bush   Marrow,    Mammoth    Pumpkin   and   Vegetable   Marrow 
belong  in  this  group. 

B.  Fruit  stem  broadly  expanded  at  its  union  with  the  fruit.     Cucurbita 

moschata. 

(a)  Fruit  club-shaped  or  pyriform,  the  neck  usually  more  or  less  crooked. 
Canada  Crookneck,  Cushaw  (Cashaw),  Winter  Crookneck  and 
Japanese  Crookneck  belong  here. 

(&)  Fruits  oblong.  Early  Neapolitan  belongs  here,  but  it  is  not  a  well- 
known  variety. 

(c)  Fruits  distinctly  oblate.  Large  Cheese  is  the  best  known  variety  in 
this  group.     This  is  usually  called  "Large  Cheese  Pumpkin." 


THE  CURCURBITS  OR  VINE  CROPS  433 

It  is  of  interest  to  note  that  Cucurbita  Pepo  contains  both  the  bush  and 
running  varieties  of  summer  squashes  and  also  the  running  varieties 
known  as  pumpkins.  These  two  types  are  very  distinct  in  general 
appearance  and  in  growth  of  vine,  and  for  this  reason  some  authorities 
have  suggested  separating  them  into  botanical  varieties.  It  is  very  con- 
fusing to  call  one  type  squash  and  another  type  in  the  same  species  pump- 
kins, but  to  call  all  varieties  pumpkins,  as  is  done  in  Europe,  affords  no 
means  of  distinguishing  the  groups  except  through  varietal  names. 

Culture. — The  general  requirements  of  the  pumpkin  and  of  the  squash 
are  not  very  different  from  the  other  cucurbits.  These  crops  do  not 
require  as  long  a  growing  season  as  the  watermelon  and  muskmelon  and 
for  this  reason  they  can  be  and  are  grown  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  United 
States  and  in  many  of  the  provinces  of  Canada.  While  the  plants  are 
not  as  tender  as  melon  plants  they  are  injured  by  frost,  so  that  planting 
should  be  delayed  until  the  weather  has  settled  and  the  ground  has 
become    warm. 

Any  good  type  of  well-drained  soil  will  produce  satisfactory  crops  of 
pumpkins  and  squashes  if  other  conditions  are  favorable.  They  are 
often  grown  on  heavier  soil  than  is  considered  safe  for  melons  in  the 
North.  Summer  squashes  grown  for  market,  are  usually  produced 
on  sandy  loam  soils  in  order  to  have  them  ready  for  sale  as  early  as 
possible. 

In  many  sections  pumpkins  are  grown  as  a  companion  crop  to  corn. 
When  so  grown  they  require  no  cultivation  and  care  except  that  given 
the  corn. 

The  time  and  method  of  planting  squashes  and  pumpkins  are  about 
the  same  as  for  the  other  cucurbits.  They  are  sometimes  started  in  hot- 
beds and  greenhouses,  but  this  is  not  a  common  practice.  Bush  squashes 
are  planted  in  hills  about  4  by  4  or  4  by  5  feet  or  in  rows  4  to  5  feet 
apart.  In  the  latter  method  the  seeds  are  sown  thickly  and  the  plants 
thinned  to  stand  about  three  feet  apart  in  the  row.  The  running  varieties 
of  squashes  and  pumpkins  are  planted  either  in  hills,  or  in  drills.  When 
planted  in  hills  the  spacing  varies  from  8  by  8  to  10  by  12  feet  depending 
upon  the  fertility  of  the  soil  and  the  vigor  of  the  varieties.  In  the  drill 
method  the  seeds  are  sown  in  the  row  and  the  plants  thinned  to  stand 
3  to  4  feet  apart  in  the  row. 

The  same  cultivation  and  care  are  suggested  as  for  the  other  cucurbits. 

Varieties. — There  are  two  general  types  of  cucurbits  known  under 
the  term  squash,  namely  summer  squash,  belonging  to  Cucurbita  Pepo 
and  the  autumn  or  winter  squashes  including  the  two  species  C.  maxima 
and  C.  moschata.  Summer  squashes  include  the  scalloped  type  as 
represented  by  the  White  Bush  or  Patty  Pan,  and  the  Yellow  Bush,  and 
by  the  crooknecked  type  including  the  Summer  Crookneck  and  Giant 
Crookneck.     In  some  regions,   especially  in  the  South,   the  summer 


434  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

squashes  are  known  as  cymlings  or  C3'niblings.  The  important  autumn  and 
winter  squashes  belonging  to  C.  maxima  are  Hubbard,  Warted  Hubbard, 
Golden  Hubbard,  Delicious,  and  Boston  Marrow.  This  is  the  most 
important  group  of  varieties  produced  in  the  North.  The  best  known 
varieties  belonging  to  C.  moschata  are  Canada  Crookneck,  Japanese 
Crookneck,  Large  Cheese,  Dunkard,  and  two  or  three  strains  or  varieties 
known  as  Cushaw.  These  are  often  called  pumpkins,  but  since  they 
are  quite  distinct  from  the  large-fruited  late  varieties  belonging  to  C. 
Pepo  it  seems  best  to  list  these  as  squashes.  The  Cushaw  is  considered 
a  desirable  type  for  the  South.  The  best  known  varieties  of  pumpkins 
(C  Pepo)  are  Small  Sugar  (also  called  Sweet  or  Sugar),  Common  Yellow 
Field  and  Connecticut  Field. 

Improvement  of  the  Hubbard  Squash. — The  Hubbard  squash  is  the 
most  important  variety  and  considerable  attention  has  been  given  to  its 
improvement.  Cummings  (34)  has  made  a  careful  and  exhaustive  study 
of  inheritance  of  yield  and  qualit}^  in  this  variety.  He  has  found  that 
great  variation  exists  in  both  yield  and  quality.  Some  of  his  conclusions, 
after  years  of  investigation,  are  as  follows : 

The  immediate  effect  of  self-pollination  was  found  to  be  negligible.  Inter- 
crossing was  without  apparent  effect  on  yield.  In  both  cases  the  progenj'',  which 
were  the  products  of  selections  from  high-  and  low-yielding  strains,  were  segre- 
gated and  maintained  with  good  contrasts  as  to  yields,  entirely  independent 
of  the  method  of  pollination.  Neither  seff-poUination  nor  inter-crossing  were 
influential  in  controlling  yield;  but  seed  selection  was  effective. 

Hubbards  vary  much  in  quality.  Some  are  wet,  lumpy,  stringy  and  insipid, 
while  others  are  dry,  mealy,  sweet  and  delectable;  and  there  are  all  gradations 
between  these  extremes,  and  many  different  combinations  of  quality  factors. 
Such  characters  are  associated  in  part  with  season,  soil  and  maturity,  and  in 
part  with  the  breed  and  its  purity  of  quality.  Quality  is  a  generic  word  and 
embraces  several  different  things,  such  as  flavor,  texture,  fibrination  and  amount 
of  moisture.  It  is  partly  a  matter  of  physical  characteristics  and  partly  a 
matter  of  proportional  chemical  composition.   .    .    . 

Edibility  tests,  substantiated  by  chemical  analyses,  show  that  specimens 
of  good  quality  contain  more  carbohydrates  and  less  water  and  crude  protein 
than  do  those  of  poor  quality.  In  general,  the  physical  analyses  and  edibility 
tests  indicate  what  the  chemical  analysis  reveals,  namely:  Differences  in 
the  amount  of  water,  crude  protein  and  carbohydrates  as  between  different 
squashes. 

Four  separate  strains — two  good,  and  two  poor — were  isolated  and  grown 
for  several  years.  Meanwhile,  edibility  tests  have  shown  that  it  is  possible  to 
project  either  good  or  poor  quality  to  succeeding  generations  under  conditions 
of  experimental  control.  Within  certain  limits,  good  squash  give  rise  to  good 
quality  progeny  and  poor  squash  to  poor  quality  progeny. 

A  large  percentage  of  the  offspring  resemble  the  parent  in  quality.  How- 
ever, once  good  quality  is  secured  constant  care  in  seed  selection  and  in  flower 


THE  CURCURBITS  OR  VINE  CROPS  435 

manipulation  are  necessary  in  order  to  avoid  cross-pollination  and  to  maintain 
good  quality. 

"Excellent"  quality  is  generally  associated  with  full  maturity  and  ripe- 
ness, a  hard,  thick  shell  and  clear  color  demarcation  between  flesh  and  shell. 
Excellent  specimens  have  a  relatively  small  number  of  seeds,  not  more  than  two- 
thirds  as  many  as  the  poor  ones.  Large  size  is  not  necessarily  or  usually  asso- 
ciated with  superior  quality,  but  full  maturity  is  imperative. 

It  seems  clear  that  one  may  propagate  almost  at  will  either  a  strain  of  poor 
quahty  or  a  strain  of  good  quality,  and  that  the  characteristics  of  the  parent 
squash  and  its  immediate  ancestry  in  the  main  determine  the  grade  of  the 
progeny.  Most  commercial  seed  stock  is  protean  in  nature  and  quahty;  but  by 
means  of  self-fertilization  and  seed  selection  good  quahty  can  be  promptly  iso- 
lated and  a  desirable  strain  estabHshed. 

Diseases. — Pumpkins  and  squashes  ordinarily  are  not  seriously 
injured  by  disease,  although  they  are  attacked  by  downy  mildew,  bacterial 
wilt  and  anthracnose.  For  a  discussion  of  the  first  two  see  "cucumber, " 
and  for  anthracnose  see  "  watermelon. " 

Insects. — The  most  important  insect  pests  of  these  crops  are  the 
squash  bug  and  the  squash  vine  borer.  Both  of  these  seem  to  prefer  the 
pumpkin  and  squash  vines  to  the  other  cucurbits  and  are  often  very 
destructive.  Some  of  the  other  insects  discussed  under  cucumber  also 
attack  these  crops.     See  discussion  of  insects  under  cucumber. 

Harvesting. — Bush  squashes  are  harvested  as  soon  as  the  fruits  are  of 
edible  size  and  before  the  rind  begins  to  harden.  The  simplest  test  to 
determine  when  the  summer  squash  is  too  old  is  the  use  of  the  thumb 
nail.  When  the  rind  becomes  somewhat  resistant  to  the  pressure  of  the 
thumb  nail  it  is  too  old  to  be  used  for  food  and  should  not  be  marketed. 
This  test  is  of  no  value  for  the  other  types  of  squashes.  In  fact,  the  harder 
and  more  resistant  the  rind  of  the  maxima  and  moschata  squashes  the 
better,  but  since  these  are  seldom  used  before  they  are  thoroughly  mature 
no  test  is  usually  necessary.  High  quality  of  winter  squashes  is  generally 
associated  with  maturity,  so  that  they  should  not  be  harvested  until  they 
are  fully  ripe,  but  before  they  have  been  frosted. 

Both  pumpkins  and  squashes  are  pulled  or  cut  from  the  vine  with  a 
portion  of  the  stem  attached  to  the  fruit.  This  is  desirable  since  the 
removal  of  the  stem  would  leave  a  large  scar  through  which  decay  organ- 
isms could  easily  enter. 

Careful  handling  from  the  time  they  are  harvested  until  they  are 
finally  disposed  of  is  important  since  fruits  bruised  or  otherwise  injured 
decay  much  more  rapidly  than  uninjured  ones.  Any  breaking  of  the  skin 
is  usually  followed  by  decay. 

Storage. — Squashes  and  pumpkins  can  be  kept  for  several  months  if 
they  are  in  good  condition  at  the  time  of  storage  and  are  kept  at  the 
proper  temperature  and  humidity.     The  conditions  necessary  to  keep 


436  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

these  crops  are  very  different  from  those  necessary  to  keep  root  crops. 
Stuart  (152)  gives  the  following  points  as  necessary  to  insure  minimum 
loss  of  squash  in  storage : 

1.  The  squashes  should  be  well  matured. 

2.  They  should  be  cut  or  carefully  broken  from  the  vine,  leaving  the  stem 
attached  to  the  squash. 

3.  They  should  be  placed  in  small  piles  to  ripen  before  hauling  from  the  field. 

4.  They  should  be  hauled  in  a  spring-wagon  box  lined  with  burlap  or  other 
material. 

5.  The  storage  room  should  be  dry  and  moderately  warm,  at  least  for  first 
two  weeks  to  harden  up  the  shells  after  which  a  lower  temperature  may  be 
maintained. 

6.  From  harvest  to  sale  they  should  be  handled  as  one  would  handle  eggs. 
Broken  stems  and  bruised  skin  are  sure  to  cause  decay. 

Most  authorities  agree  that  pumpkins  and  squashes  should  be  kept  at 
a  relatively  high  temperature,  preferably  between  50  and  60  degrees  F. 
For  a  small  supply  the  fruits  may  be  stored  on  shelves  near  the  furnace, 
but  for  large  quantities  special  storage  houses  are  desirable.  The  house 
should  be  well  built,  thoroughly  insulated  and  provided  with  good  venti- 
lation and  some  means  of  heating.  The  inside  of  the  house  is  fitted  with 
racks  or  shelves  made  of  1  by  3  or  1  by  4  inch  slats,  placed  2  to  3  inches 
apart  to  allow  a  free  circulation  of  air.  It  is  considered  best  to  place  only 
one  layer  of  fruits  on  a  shelf  as  pihng  them  one  on  top  of  another  causes 
slight  bruising.  However,  they  are  sometimes  piled  three  or  four  fruits 
deep  on  the  shelves. 

Stuart  (152)  has  reported  the  results  of  a  storage  test  with  Hubbard 
Squash  stored  in  a  dry  and  medium  warm  room  (50  to  60  degrees).  One 
ton  was  stored  on  October  3  and  on  December  4  the  squashes  weighed 
1,810  pounds,  on  January  6,  1,657  pounds,  February  3,  four  months  after 
harvesting,  the  sound  fruit  weighed  1,488  pounds.  The  total  moisture 
loss  was  20.8  per  cent  and  the  loss  by  decay  was  4.8  per  cent  or  a  total 
loss  of  25.6  per  cent.  At  the  time  of  storage  the  wholesale  price  was  one 
cent  per  pound,  late  in  December  2.5  to  3  cents  and  at  the  end  of  the 
experiment  the  1,488  pounds  sold  for  $53.  This  difference  in  price  is 
more  than  can  be  depended  upon  in  most  years,  but  the  value  during 
the  winter  is  usually  enough  greater  than  in  the  fall  to  give  a  good  profit 
for  storage,  provided  the  losses  are  not  excessive. 


CHAPTER  XXVII 

SWEET  CORN,  OKRA,  MARTYNIA 

These  three  crops  are  placed  together  because  none  of  them  fit  into  the 
other  groups,  and  not  on  account  of  any  special  similarity.  They  are, 
however,  all  warm  season  annuals,  are  tender  to  frost  and  are  grown  for 
their  fruits.  Only  one,  sweet  corn,  is  of  any  great  commercial  importance 
in  the  United  States.  Sweet  corn  is  of  greatest  importance  in  the  North; 
okra  is  produced  mainly  in  the  South;  and  martynia  is  grown  to  a  limited 
extent  only,  largely  as  a  curiosity. 

SWEET  CORN 

While  the  sweet  corn  plant  is  tender  to  frost  and  grows  best  in  hot 
weather,  the  main  areas  of  commercial  production  in  the  United  States 
are  in  the  northern  states.  The  crop  is  also  grown  in  portions  of  Canada. 
It  is  not  an  important  commercial  crop  in  any  state  south  of  Maryland. 
This  is  due  probably  to  the  serious  injury  done  by  the  corn  earworm  in 
the  South,  and  to  high  temperatures  at  harvest  time.  At  high  tempera- 
tures the  corn  matures  very  rapidly  and  it  is  difficult  to  harvest  the  ears 
at  just  the  right  time  and  if  this  is  not  done  a  loss  results.  After  the  ears 
are  pulled  from  the  stalk  there  is  a  rapid  deterioration  in  quality  due  to 
the  loss  of  sugar  and  the  higher  the  temperature  the  more  rapid 
the  change.  These  factors  give  the  cooler  regions  a  decided  advantage 
over  the  South  in  sweet  corn  production. 

Sweet  corn  production  is  not  limited  by  climatic  conditions  to  the 
same  extent  as  is  field  corn  for  grain  since  the  former  is  harvested  for  use 
before  it  begins  to  harden.  Sweet  corn  is  a  very  successful  crop  in  many 
regions  of  the  North  where  field  corn  for  grain  cannot  be  produced  in 
normal  seasons. 

Sweet  corn  is  shipped  to  a  very  limited  extent  only,  because  of  the 
rapid  deterioration  in  quality,  hence  most  of  the  crop  consumed  in  the 
fresh  state  is  produced  in  the  home  garden,  and  in  market  gardens.  A 
very  large  percentage  of  the  crop  is  grown  for  canning. 

Statistics  of  Production. — Sweet  corn  in  1919  ranked  sixth  in  value 
among  the  vegetables,  being  exceeded  by  Irish  potatoes,  sweet  potatoes, 
cabbage,  onions  and  tomatoes.  In  that  year  271,584  acres  of  land  were 
devoted  to  sweet  corn  for  sale  and  the  value  of  the  crop  was  $17,297,  561. 
Six  states,  Maryland,  New  York,  Iowa,  Ohio,  Illinois  and  Pennsylvania 

437 


438 


VEGETABLE  CROPS 


produced  about  60  per  cent  of  the  entire  crop.     Table  LXV  gives  the 
production  for  the  United  States  and  for  the  ten  leading  states. 


Table  LXV. — Acreage,  Value  of  Product  and  Average  Value  per  Acre    of 
Sweet  Corn  Grown  in  the  Ten  Leading  States  and  the  Totals  for  the 

United  States 


State 


Farms 
reporting 


Acres 
harvested 


Value  of 
product 


Average 

value  per 

acre 


Maryland.  .  .  . 
New  York . . . . 

Iowa 

Ohio 

Illinois 

Pennsylvania . 
New  Jersey . . 

Maine 

Indiana 

Michigan 

Ignited  States 


5,924 

10,681 

4,494 

9,712 

4,263 

17,171 

4,624 

6,712 

3,066 

4,999 

103,784 


34,778 
28,965 
28,595 
27,902 
26,643 
22,255 
15,572 
11,316 
10,101 
9,944 
271,584 


17 


,766,229 
,028,617 
,012,771 
,590,479 
,055,497 
,751,533 
,317,821 
,554,800 
488,257 
483,479 
,297,561 


5  51 
70 
35 
57 
40 
79 
85 

137 
48 
49 
64 


Examination  of  the  table  will  show  that  the  average  value  per  acre  in 
New  York,  Pennsylvania,  New  Jersey  and  Maine  was  much  greater  than 
in  the  other  states.  This  is  due  partly  to  the  fact  that  a  larger  portion  of 
the  crop  was  sold  as  green  corn  in  the  former  group  of  states  than  in  the 
latter  group,  and  in  part  to  the  higher  price  paid  by  the  canners  in  the 
East.  A  much  larger  part  of  the  crop  grown  in  Maryland  goes  to 
the  canning  factories  than  in  the  other  eastern  states. 

Influence  of  Climate.- — Reference  has  been  made  to  the  effect  of  hot 
weather  on  the  rapid  maturity  of  sweet  corn  and  also  on  the  injury  caused 
by  the  corn  ear  worm.  There  has  been  a  widespread  belief  that  sweet 
corn  canned  near  the  northern  limit  of  its  production  is  sweeter  and  of 
better  quality  than  that  canned  farther  south.  Experimental  evidence 
shows  quite  conclusively  that  this  is  true,  but  the  beUef  that  sweet  corn 
develops  a  higher  sugar  content  in  the  North  than  in  the  South  is  not 
borne  out  by  experimental  data.  Straughn  (148)  has  reported 
analyses  of  sweet  corn  grown  at  Clemson  College,  South  Carolina; 
College  Park,  Maryland;  New  Brunswick,  New  Jersey;  New  Haven, 
Connecticut  and  Orono,  Maine.  The  data  reported  represent  from 
20  to  100  analyses  of  each  variety  at  each  station.  The  highest  per- 
centage of  sugar  in  both  the  Crosby  and  Stowell's  Evergreen  was  in  the 
corn  grown  in  South  Carolina,  and  the  lowest  in  C'onnecticut. 


SWEET  CORN,  OKRA,  MARTYNIA  439 

Later  Straughn  and  Church  (149)  reported  on  results  secured  during 
4  years,  1905  to  1908,  for  the  Crosby  and  Stowell's  Evergreen  varieties 
grown  in  Florida,  South  Carohna,  Maryland,  Connecticut  and  Maine. 
In  this  work  the  seed  used  at  all  of  the  stations  was  the  same  strain  and 
the  analyses  were  made  at  the  stations  where  the  corn  was  grown.  Their 
results  failed  to  show  any  direct  relation  between  latitude  in  which  the 
corn  was  grown  and  the  sugar  content.  Three  years  out  of  four  the  corn 
grown  in  South  Carohna  had  the  highest  sugar  content  and  in  the  other 
year  there  was  very  httle  difference  between  the  three  highest.  Connec- 
ticut-grown corn  had  the  lowest  percentage  of  sugar,  while  that 
from  Maine  and  Maryland  was  intermediate  and  about  equal. 

The  advantages  of  northern  canned  corn  are  apparently  not  due  to  the 
difference  in  sugar  content  at  time  of  harvest,  but  rather  to  the  tempera- 
ture prevaihng  at  harvest  time.  Appleman  and  Arthur  (3)  have  shown 
that  the  temperature  to  which  the  corn  is  subjected  after  being  pulled 
from  the  stalk  influences  the  rate  of  sugar  loss,  the  higher  the  temperature 
the  more  rapid  the  loss.  (See  Harvesting.)  Stevens  and  Higgins  (142) 
have  shown  that  the  temperature  prevailing  during  harvest  time  in  Mary- 
land is  considerably  higher  than  that  which  prevails  in  Maine.  They 
state  that  corn  canning  in  Maryland  falls  largely  in  August,  while  in 
Maine  it  is  mainly  in  September.  The  mean  temperature  for  Baltimore, 
Maryland,  from  August  2  to  31  is  74.6  degrees  F.  and  at  Portland,  Maine, 
the  mean  temperature  for  September  is  59.5.  The  bulk  of  the  corn 
canned  in  Maryland  is  harvested  in  August  and  a  large  part  of  the  Maine 
corn  is  harvested  in  September.  The  highest  mean  temperature  at 
Portland,  Maine,  62.6  degrees  F.  is  6  degrees  below  the  lowest  mean  for 
Baltimore,  68.6  degrees. 

History  and  Taxonomy.^Sweet  corn  is  probably  of  very  recent 
origin,  since  it  was  not  mentioned  by  Jefferson  in  his  Notes  on  Virginia, 
1781,  nor  by  McMahon,  1806.  A  writer  in  the  New  England  Farmer, 
August  3,  1822,  states  that  sweet  corn  was  not  known  in  New  England 
until  a  gentleman  from  Plymouth,  who  was  in  General  Sullivan's  expe- 
dition against  the  Indians  in  1779  brought  back  a  few  ears  which  he  found 
among  the  Indians  on  the  border  of  the  Susquehanna.  Another  writer 
in  September,  1822,  asserts  that  this  sweet  corn  was  brought  back  by 
Lieutenant  Richard  Bagnal  from  General  Sullivan's  expedition  against 
the  Sk  Nations  in  1779  and  was  called  papoon  corn.  In  1832  sweet  corn 
was  mentioned  by  Bridgeman  (Gard.  Asst.  1832).  After  about  1850  it 
was  frequentty  mentioned  by  writers,  Buist  in  1851,  mentions  two  varie- 
ties (Family  Kitchen  Garden  61.1851)  and  in  1854  Schenck  mentions 
three  varieties  as  having  been  brought  into  notice  within  a  few  months. 
In  1866  Burr  describes  12  varieties. 

The  word  corn  has  a  special  meaning  in  the  United  States  and  is 
apphed  only  to  Indian  corn  or  maize  while  in  other  countries  it  apphes  to 


440  VEGETABLE  CROI\S 

all  bread  grains.  In  Europe  the  word  ''corn"  applies  to  oats,  wheat, 
rye  or  barley,  as  well  as  to  Indian  corn.  The  references  to  corn  in  the 
Bible  probably  refer  only  to  the  small  grains  since  Indian  corn  or  maize 
was  not  known  in  the  Eastern  Hemisphere  prior  to  the  discovery  of 
America. 

Corn  or  Indian  corn  was  probably  grown  by  the  natives  of  the 
Americas  from  a  very  ancient  date.  Plumb  (117)  writes  that  "mounds 
that  wore  erected  prior  to  the  time  of  the  American  Indian,  of  which  he  has 
no  tradition,  that  have  been  explored  in  recent  years,  have  contained  corn 
cobs  and  charred  kernels.  In  the  caves,  occupied  by  the  early  Cliff 
dwellers  in  the  southwestern  states  ears  of  corn  have  frequently  been 
discovered.  In  South  America,  Darwin  found  on  the  coast  of  Peru  heads 
of  maize,  together  with  eighteen  species  of  recent  sea-shells  embedded  in 
a  beach  which  had  been  upraised  at  least  85  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
sea.  Ears  of  Indian  corn  are  occasionally  found  in  vessels  placed  in 
ancient  Indian  tombs  or  mounds  in  Chih,  Peru  and  Central  America." 

The  early  explorers  of  this  country  found  the  Indians  growing  corn 
from  Canada  to  Florida.  They  taught  the  early  settlers  how  to  grow  it. 
In  fact,  it  was  the  leading  crop  among  the  natives  of  this  continent  at  the 
time  of  the  discovery  of  America. 

Authorities  generally  agree  that  corn  is  probably  a  native  of  Mexico. 
Harshberger  (61)  states  that  "all  plants  closely  related  to  maize  are 
Mexican.  The  evidence  to  the  present  date  (1893)  places  the  original 
home  of  our  American  cereal  maize  in  Central  Mexico." 

Sweet  corn  and  field  corn  belong  to  the  grass  family  and  to  the  genus 
Zea.  These  two  are  considered  by  most  authorities  as  belonging  to  the 
same  species,  Zea  Mays  Linn,  and  sweet  corn  is  designated  by  the 
variety  name  rugosa.  Bailey  ("Cyclo.  Amer.  Hort."  2006,  1902)  sug- 
gested Zea  Mays  var.  Saccharata  and  Sturtevant  (3rd  Rep.  N.  Y.  Expt. 
Sta.  1884)  listed  sweet  corn  as  Zea  saccharata.  Sweet  corn  is  distin- 
guished from  other  corns  by  its  high  sugar  content  when  in  the  milk 
and  early  dough  stage  and  by  its  wrinkled,  translucent  kernels  when  dry. 

Soil  Preference. — Sweet  corn,  like  field  corn,  can  be  grown  on  a  great 
variety  of  soils.  Where  earliness  is  an  important  factor,  as  in  the  pro- 
duction of  early  corn  for  a  local  market,  a  well-drained  sandy  loam  soil  is 
considered  best  since  such  a  soil  warms  up  early  in  the  spring  and  usuallj^ 
matures  a  crop  before  drought  occurs.  Such  a  soil,  if  supplied  with  humus 
and  is  well  fertilized,  will  produce  a  good  yield  even  during  the  drier  part  of 
the  season.  In  growing  sweet  corn  for  the  canning  factory  a  large  yield 
is  more  important  than  earliness,  therefore,  a  rich,  retentive  soil  is 
desired.  Silts,  silt  loams,  and  clay  loams  are  better  than  the  sandy  and 
sandy  loam  soils  for  the  canning  crop.  In  many  regions,  as  in  the  Genessee 
Valley  of  New  York  and  the  Scioto  Valley  of  Ohio,  rich  river  bottom  lands 
are  used  quite  extensively  for  sweet  corn  production.     These  soils  are  not 


SWEET  CORN,  OKRA,  MARTYNIA  441 

only  rich  in  mineral  nutrients,  but  are  less  subject  to  drought  than  most 
other  soils.  Such  soils  are  enriched  by  the  deposit  of  sediment  during 
periods  of  flood.  Muck  soil  has  been  used  to  advantage  in  the  production 
of  sweet  corn.  Frost  usually  occurs  later  in  spring  and  earlier  in  fall  on 
these  soils  than  on  the  surrounding  uplands,  but  in  nearly  all  regions 
where  field  corn  can  be  grown  for  grain  on  upland  soils  the  growing  season 
on  the  muck  is  long  enough  to  produce  a  crop  of  sweet  corn.  These  soils 
in  the  upper  part  of  the  corn  belt,  are  not  satisfactory  for  field  corn  for 
grain  on  account  of  the  late  frosts  in  spring  and  early  frosts  in  fall. 

Manures  and  Fertilizers. — While  sweet  corn  is  a  heavy  feeder  it  is  not 
a  common  practice  to  fertilize  very  heavily,  except  in  growing  early  corn 
for  market  on  the  lighter  soils.  Under  such  conditions  1,000  to  1,500 
pounds  of  a  high-grade  complete  fertilizer  is  often  applied,  and  manure  is 
sometimes  used  in  addition.  Where  manure  is  used  at  the  rate  of  10  to  15 
tons  to  the  acre  a  hght  application  of  nitrate  of  soda  to  give  the  plants  a 
quick  start  and  400  to  500  pounds  of  acid  phosphate  should  give  large  yields 
if  other  factors  are  favorable.  When  corn  is  grown  for  the  canning 
factory  a  light  application  of  manure  and  200  to  400  pounds  of  acid 
phosphate  are  often  appHed.  On  the  richer  alluvial  soils  many  growers 
apply  no  fertilizer,  but  a  Hght  application  of  acid  phosphate  or  other 
phosphorus  carrier  would  usually  be  advisable.  On  most  upland  soils, 
if  manure  is  not  used,  it  is  necessary  to  turn  under  green  manure  or  other 
material  to  keep  up  the  humus  supply.  It  is  possible  to  grow  profitable 
crops  with  commercial  fertilizers  and  green  manures,  but  not  with  the 
fertilizers  alone  unless  the  soil  is  already  supplied  with  vegetable  matter. 

Results  of  fertilizer  experiments  on  sweet  corn  reported  by  Thorne 
(163)  indicate  that  production  can  be  maintained  by  the  use  of  commer- 
cial fertihzers  in  conjunction  with  green-manure  crops.  These  results 
were  secured  on  a  run-down  alluvial  soil,  and  cover  a  period  of  5  years, 
1915  to  1919.  The  yield  records  show  that  phosphorus  was  more  impor- 
tant than  either  nitrogen  or  potash.  The  average  yield  was  as  large  from 
400  pounds  of  acid  phosphate  alone  as  from  16  tons  of  manure  plus  400 
pounds  acid  phosphate.  The  complete  summary  of  these  results  is 
given  in  Chapter  III. 

Difference  of  opinion  exists  as  to  whether  it  is  better  to  apply  the 
fertilizer  in  the  hill  or  to  apply  it  broadcast.  Some  writers  have  asserted 
that  when  the  fertilizer  is  apphed  in  the  hill  corn  suffers  more  from  drought 
than  when  the  fertihzer  is  broadcasted.  This  has  been  explained  as 
being  due  to  a  smaller  root  system  where  hill  apphcation  is  practiced. 
There  is  no  evidence  that  the  location  of  the  fertilizer  in  the  hill  has  any 
tendency  to  restrict  the  root  system.  Millar  (96)  has  reported  results  of 
experiments  with  corn  in  Michigan  in  which  a  comparison  of  hill  and 
broadcast  applications  was  made.  The  soil  on  which  this  experiment 
was  conducted  is  a  dark  sandy  loam  resting  on  a  heavy  clay  subsoil. 


442  VEaETABLE  CROPS 

The  hills  were  placed  44  inches  apart  each  way  and  the  variety  of  corn  was 
Golden  Glow.  A  complete  fertilizer  having  the  composition  3-10-4 
was  used,  and  the  hill  application  was  at  the  rate  of  200  pounds  to  the 
acre.  This  was  sprinkled  over  an  area  about  8  inches  long  and  4  to  5 
inches  wide  in  the  bottom  of  the  hill  and  covered  with  about  one-half 
inch  of  soil  before  dropping  the  seed.  For  comparison  400  pounds  of  the 
same  fertilizer  were  applied  broadcast  on  one  portion  of  the  field  and  this 
was  mixed  with  soil  before  the  corn  was  planted.  At  the  end  of  30 
days  the  corn  fertilized  with  200  pounds  of  the  mixture  applied  in  the 
hill  was  much  larger  than  that  on  the  broadcast  treatment.  The  root 
systems  were  dug  out  in  order  to  show  the  effect  of  the  method  of  fertilizer 
application  on  the  extent  of  the  root  growth.  The  author  states  that 
there  was  little,  if  any,  difference  in  the  extent  of  the  root  growth  and 
that  the  application  of  the  fertilizer  under  the  seed  did  not  lead  to  a 
centralization  of  roots  in  this  zone.  A  second  examination  was  made  57 
days  after  planting  and  at  this  time  the  corn  fertilized  in  the  hill  was  in 
full  tassel  and  in  the  early  silk  stage  while  that  fertilized  broadcast  was 
just  coming  into  tassel.  The  root  systems  were  well  distributed 
throughout  the  soil  in  both  cases.  Commenting  on  these  results 
Millar  has  the  following  to  say: 

The  results  of  this  experiment  show  no  striking  variation  in  root  develop- 
ment of  corn  as  a  result  of  the  two  methods  of  fertilizer  distribution  employed. 
It  would  seem,  therefore,  that  the  observations  of  some  farmers  to  the  effect  that 
corn  fertilized  in  the  hill  sometimes  suffers  more  from  drought  than  unfertilized 
corn  is  not  due  to  a  more  limited  root  system.  It  would  seem  probable  that 
when  such  a  condition  prevails  the  reason  lies  in  a  greater  moisture  requirement 
of  the  plants,  due  to  a  greater  vegetative  growth. 

Applying  fertilizer  under  the  hill  as  was  done  in  this  experiment,  is  doul)t- 
less  more  stimulating  to  the  plant  than  applying  above  the  seed,  as  is  done  by 
most  planters.  The  difference  should  be  more  pronounced  during  seasons  of 
light  rainfall.  It  seems  probable,  therefore,  that  the  greater  rate  of  growth  and 
earlier  maturity  resulting  from  hill  fertihzation  in  this  experiment  would  not 
alwaj^s  be  noted  under  average  farm  conditions. 

The  results  quoted  did  not  show  the  effect  of  the  method  of  applica- 
tion on  total  yield.  It  would  seem  that  in  an  average  season  the  yield 
would  be  larger  from  the  heavier  application  of  fertilizer  if  the  soil  needed 
as  much  as  400  pounds  of  the  mixture  used.  Since  the  roots  of  the  corn 
plant  reach  all  parts  of  the  soil  to  a  considerable  depth  the  fertilizer 
would  be  within  reach  of  the  roots  and  eventually  would  be  utilized  even 
under  broadcast  application.  The  advantage  of  the  hill  application  is 
probably  in  giving  the  plant  a  good  start  before  the  roots  have  much  of  a 
spread. 

In  general  it  may  be  said  that  appHcations  of  .")00  pounds  or  more  to 
the  acre  should  be  applied  broadcast,  or  part  broadcast  and  part  in  the 


SWEET  CORN,  OKRA,  MARTYNIA  443 

hill.  There  is  danger  of  injuring  the  plant  roots  with  a  heavy  application 
of  fertilizer  in  the  hill.  Applications  of  200  or  300  pounds  to  the  acre  may 
give  better  results  if  applied  in  the  hill  rather  than  broadcast,  but  this 
would  probably  depend  somewhat  on  the  character  of  the  soil  and  the 
amount  of  rainfall. 

Planting. — Sweet  corn  is  injured  by  frost  hence  it  is  not  safe  to  plant 
until  the  danger  of  hard  frosts  is  over.  It  is  worth  while,  however,  to  take 
chances  on  frosts  where  the  crop  is  grown  for  a  local  market  in  which 
early  corn  brings  high  prices.  As  a  rule  it  is  safe  to  plant  sweet  corn 
about  the  time  of  the  last  kilHng  frost  in  spring.  In  order  to  have  sweet 
corn  available  from  the  time  the  earliest  varieties  are  ready  for  use  until 
frost  in  autumn  it  is  necessary  to  make  several  plantings,  or  else  to  plant 
early,  medium  and  late  varieties  at  about  the  same  time.  One  practice 
is  to  make  a  planting  of  an  early  variety  as  early  in  the  spring  as  the 
conditions  will  allow.  In  2  or  3  weeks  another  planting  is  made  of 
the  same  or  a  similar  variety  and  at  the  same  time  a  medium  and  a  late 
variety  are  planted.  Another  practice  is  to  make  several  plantings  of 
one  variety,  usually  an  early  one  at  intervals  of  2  or  3  weeks,  the 
last  planting  being  made  at  such  a  time  that  it  will  be  ready  for  use 
just  before  frost  in  the  autumn.  The  time  that  this  last  planting  should 
be  made  depends  upon  the  variety  used  and  the  locality. 

For  a  very  early  crop  the  plants  may  be  started  in  the  greenhouse  or 
hotbed  3  or  4  weeks  before  time  for  planting  in  the  field.  Seeds 
are  planted  in  plant  bands,  pots,  or  other  receptacles,  several  seeds  to 
each  receptacle.  In  setting  the  plants  in  the  field  or  garden  care  must  be 
taken  not  to  disturb  the  roots.  After  the  plants  have  become  established 
they  are  thinned  to  the  desired  number  in  each  hill.  This  method  of 
growing  plants  is  practicable  only  for  home  use  and  for  a  special  market. 
The  planting  distance  for  sweet  corn  depends  upon  the  variety  grown, 
since  the  larger  the  variety  the  more  space  required.  Both  drill  and  hill 
method  of  planting  are  practiced  and  there  exists  considerable  difference 
of  opinion  as  to  which  is  the  better.  With  the  hill  method,  cultivation 
can  be  given  in  both  directions  and  this  reduces  the  amount  of  hand  work 
required.  On  the  other  hand,  the  drill  method  gives  a  better  distribution 
of  plants  and  very  often  a  larger  yield.  When  the  hill  method  is 
employed  6  to  8  seeds  are  planted  and  the  plants  are  thinned  to 
3  or  4  to  the  hill.  The  hills  are  spaced  2  by  2)^  or  2  by  3  feet  apart  for 
the  small-growing  varieties  and  2)^  by  3,  3  by  3  or  33^^  by  Z}^,  feet  for  the 
large  growing  varieties.  In  the  drill  method  the  seeds  are  distributed 
singly  and  the  plants  are  thinned  to  stand  10  to  15  inches  apart  in  the 
row,  the  distance  depending  largely  upon  the  variety. 

Planting  is  done  either  by  hand  or  by  means  of  a  horse-drawn  planter. 
When  planted  by  hand  the  kernels  may  be  dropped  into  a  shallow  furrow, 
or  a  hand  planter  may  be  used.     The  hand  planter  is  a  great  labor  saver 


444  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

and  is  used  quito  largely  b}-  mark(»t  gardciuM-s  in  man}- regions.  Machine 
planters  are  made  to  plant  either  one  or  two  rows  at  a  time.  These 
machines  open  the  furrow,  drop  the  corn  and  cover  it  all  at  one  operation. 
For  small  acreages  the  large  machines  are  not  justified,  but  for  large 
acreages  they  may  be  economical. 

The  amount  of  seed  required  to  plant  an  acre  depends  upon  the 
distances  and  rate  of  planting,  and  upon  the  size  of  the  kernels.  In 
general  the  amount  ranges  from  10  to  20  pounds  per  acre. 

Cultivation. — The  cultivation  of  sweet  corn  is  about  the  same  as  that 
given  field  corn.  Many  growers  follow  the  practice  of  running  a  weeder, 
or  a  spike-tooth  harrow  over  the  field  before  the  corn  comes  up,  and 
sometimes  after  it  is  up.  This  is  a  good  practice  as  the  breaking  of 
the  surface  destroys  the  weeds  and  gives  the  corn  a  chance  to  get  started 
ahead  of  them.  Even  after  the  corn  comes  up  the  weeder  or  harrow  can 
be  used  to  good  advantage  as  the  surface  is  loosened  and  the  weeds 
destroyed  between  the  plants  in  the  row  as  well  as  between  the  rows, 
whereas  with  a  cultivator  only  the  space  between  the  rows  is  cultivated. 
The  use  of  the  weeder  or  harrow  eliminates  some  of  the  hand  work. 
After  the  plants  are  3  to  4  inches  high  a  cultivator  is  used  in  place 
of  the  weeder  and  the  cultivation  is  confined  to  the  space  between  the  rows. 
Both  one-horse  and  two-horse  cultivators  are  used,  the  former  on  small 
areas  and  the  latter  where  sweet  corn  is  grown  on  a  large  scale.  Most  of 
the  growers  for  canning  factories  in  New  York  use  a  two-horse  cultivator. 

Some  authorities  advocate  deep  cultivation  while  the  plants  are  small 
and  shallow  cultivation  later  when  the  roots  extend  a  considerable  dis- 
tance from  the  plants.  If,  however,  the  land  has  been  well  prepared 
there  is  no  point  to  deep  cultivation  at  any  time,  and  the  turning  up  of  the 
moist  soil  increases  the  water  loss  by  evaporation.  Thorough  preparation 
of  the  seed  bed  and  shallow  cultivation  make  a  good  combination.  Only 
shallow  cultivation  should  be  given  after  the  roots  extend  across  the  rows 
for  deep  cultivation  results  in  destruction  of  many  roots. 

Results  of  experiments  in  the  cultivation  of  field  corn,  carried  on  by 
many  experiment  stations  and  by  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture 
have  showri  conclusively  that  destruction  of  weeds  is  the  main  object  to 
be  accomplished  in  cultivation.  Gates  and  Cox  (22)  have  reported 
on  a  series  of  cooperative  experiments  carried  on  in  28  states  and 
covering  a  five-year  period,  1907  to  1912.  In  all,  124  experiments  were 
conducted  and  the  average  yield  of  the  uncultivated  plats  was  99.108 
per  cent  of  the  yield  from  the  cultivated  ones.  In  the  uncultivated  plats 
the  weeds  were  kept  down  by  cutting  them  off  at  the  surface  of  the  soil 
without  forming  a  mulch.  They  found  no  correlation  between  the  rain- 
fall and  the  comparative  values  of  cultivation  and  no  cultivation. 

Mosier  and  Gustafson  (101)  grouped  the  experiments  of  Gates  and 
Gox  according  to  soil  type  and  found  a  slight  correlation.     On  clay 


SWEET  CORN,  OKRA,  MARTYNIA  445 

soils  the  average  yields  of  the  uncultivated  plats  was  92.6  per  cent  of  that 
of  the  cultivated  ones,  clay  loams  94.5  per  cent,  silt  loams  102.4  and  sandy 
soils  105.7  per  cent. 

Results  of  cultivation  experiments  with  corn  carried  on  by  the 
Illinois  Experiment  Station  for  a  period  of  9  years  have  been  reported 
by  M osier  and  Gustafson  (101).  The  average  yield  of  corn  was  39.2 
bushels  on  plats  cultivated  three  times ;  45.9  bushels  where  no  cultivation 
was  given,  but  where  weeds  were  kept  down  by  scraping;  and  7.3  bushels 
per  acre  on  plats  where  the  weeds  were  allowed  to  grow.  These  investi- 
gators showed  that  the  injurious  effects  of  the  weeds  were  due  to  some 
factor  or  factors  other  than  the  depletion  of  moisture,  since  parts  of  the 
weed  plats  were  irrigated  and  the  yield  was  increased  only  3  bushels 
per  acre  over  no  irrigation. 

Many  other  experiments  on  corn  cultivation  have  been  conducted, 
but  since  most  of  them  have  given  the  same  general  results  as  those 
mentioned  they  are  not  reported  here.  A  few  have  shown  considerable 
gain  for  cultivation  over  scraping  to  keep  down  weeds,  but  by  far  the 
greater  number  have  shown  little  or  no  gain,  and,  in  many  cases,  a  loss 
for  cultivation. 

In  general  the  experimental  results  justify  the  conclusion  that  the 
primary  object  of  cultivation  is  the  destruction  of  weeds  and  not  the  con- 
servation of  moisture  by  a  dust  mulch.  There  is  some  evidence  that  on 
heav}^  soils  there  is  slight  benefit  from  cultivation  other  than  weed  control. 
This  benefit  may  be  ascribed  to  better  aeration,  due  to  the  breaking  up 
of  the  hard  crust,  but  the  evidence  on  this  point  is  not  conclusive.  (See 
Chapter  X.) 

Suckering. — The  removal  of  suckers  from  the  base  of  the  corn  plant 
is  a  very  old  practice  and  was  formerly  followed  to  a  greater  extent  than  it 
is  today.  In  fact,  it  has  been  largely  discontinued  in  field  corn  culture 
and  is  not  followed  by  a  large  percentage  of  sweet  corn  growers,  although 
it  is  almost  the  universal  practice  in  some  localities  as  in  Nassau  County, 
New  York.  The  advantages  claimed  for  the  practice  are  increased  yield, 
larger  size  and  earlier  maturity.  Various  writers  have  explained  that 
removal  of  the  suckers  increase  the  yield  because  the  raw  materials 
brought  into  the  plant  from  the  soil  would  go  to  the  ear  instead  of  to  the 
suckers.  In  this  explanation  the  fact  that  the  materials  brought  into  the 
plant  from  the  soil  are  not  foods  until  thej^  have  undergone  manufacture 
in  the  foliage  is  overlooked.  The  suckers  themselves  aid  in  this  manu- 
facture. These  writers  have  tried  to  explain  something  that  has  not  been 
proved,  and  which  probably  is  not  generally  true. 

Experiments  conducted  by  the  writer  at  Ithaca,  New  York,  covering  a 
period  of  3  years  seem  to  show  that  removal  of  the  suckers  decreases 
the  yield  and  does  not  increase  earliness,  nor  appreciably  increase  the 
size  of  the  ears.     In  these  experiments  the  Golden  Bantam  and  Stowell's 


446 


VEGETABLE  CROPS 


Evergreen  varieties  were  used  and  there  were  seven  replications  each  year, 
except  the  first  when  there  were  only  four.  The  treatments  were  as 
follows: 

1.  Check — suckers  allowed  to  grow. 

2.  Suckers  removed  once  when  the  plants  were  12  to  18  inches  high. 

3.  Suckers  removed  when  the  plants  were  12  to  18  inches  high  and  at 
intervals  of  a  week  or  ten  days  as  long  as  any  started. 

4.  Suckers  removed  when  plants  were  in  tassel. 

The  rows  were  150  feet  long  and  spaced  3  feet  apart.  The  corn  was 
planted  in  hills,  2  feet  apart  for  Golden  Bantam  and  3  feet  for  Stowell's 
Evergreen.     The  plants  were  thinned  to  three  to  each  hill. 

Table  LXVI  gives  the  average  yield  of  the  two  varieties  under  the 
different  treatments  for  the  two  years  1920  and  1921.  The  data  for  1919  are 
not  included  because  only  the  Golden  Bantam  variety  was  used  that  year 
and  one  of  the  treatments  was  left  out.  The  results  were  practically  the 
same  for  the  three  treatments  tested  in  1919  as  for  the  same  ones  used  in 
the  other  two  years.     The  figures  given  include  only  marketable  ears. 


T.^BLE    LXVI.— Average    Yield    of 
Ithaca,  New 

Sweet   Corn   in   Suckering   Experiment' 
York,   1920  and  1921 

Golden  Bantam 

stowell's 

Evergreen 

Treatment 

Total  yield 

Yield  Grade  1 

Total  yield 

Yield  Grade  1 

No.  ears 

Weight, 
lb. 

No.  ears 

Weight, 
lb 

No.  ears 

Weight, 
lb. 

No.  ears 

Weight, 
lb. 

1 

2 
3 
4 

1,300.5 
1,219.0 
1,143.0 
1,145.0 

454.0 
423.0 
412.5 
405.0 

950.0 
903.0 

883.5 
854 . 5 

368.5 
348.0 
346.5 
332.5 

754.0 
727.5 
730.0 
717.0 

567.7 
550.0 
557.0 
538.5 

598.5 
593.0 
606.0 
587.0 

487.5 
480.9 
488.5 
469.5 

A  study  of  Table  LXVI  will  show  that  the  plants  not  suckered 
produced  the  highest  total  yield  in  both  number  of  ears  and  weight  for 
both  varieties.  The  later  the  suckers  were  removed  the  greater  the  reduc- 
tion in  yield.  This  is  as  would  be  expected  since  the  larger  the  sucker  at 
time  of  removal  the  more  the  balance  between  the  roots  and  stalks  would 
be  upset  and  also  the  greater  the  reduction  of  the  manufacturing  area  of 
the  plant. 

There  was  a  slight  advantage  in  earliness  for  early  suckering  with 
Golden  Bantam.  The  average  yield  of  the  check  for  the  first  picking  was 
390  ears  weighing  143  pounds,  for  the  plants  suckered  early  402  ears 
weighing  147  pounds,  for  the  third  method  382  ears  144  pounds,  and  the 
fourth  method  349  ears  weighing  130  pounds. 


SWEET  CORN,  OKRA,  MARTYNIA  447 

Results  of  cooperative  experiments  on  three  farms  in  New  Jersey 
reported  by  De  Baun  (N.  J.  Rept.  1915),  show  the  same  order  of  yields 
as  those  given  in  Table  LXVI.  The  New  Jersey  tests  were  conducted  for 
only  one  season,  a  favorable  one  for  sweet  corn.  The  name  of  the  variety 
used  was  not  given  in  the  report. 

An  experiment  conducted  at  the  New  Hampshire  Station  in  1921 
(N.  H.  Bull.  203)  shows  a  slight  loss  (5.8  per  cent)  for  suckering  of  early 
Crosby  and  a  slight  gain  (2.6  per  cent)  for  suckering  of  Golden  Bantam. 
The  size  of  the  ears  was  the  same  for  suckered  and  unsuckered  plants  of 
both  varieties. 

Sweet  corn  suckering  experiments  have  not  been  carried  on  long 
enough  and  have  not  covered  a  sufficiently  wide  range  of  soil  and  climatic 
conditions  to  show  conclusively  the  effects  of  the  practice.  The  experi- 
mental evidence  available,  and  the  fact  that  most  growers  have  discon- 
tinued the  practice,  would  seem  to  justify  the  statement  that  under  most 
conditions  suckering  is  not  advisable.  The  expense  is  certainly  not  justi- 
fied in  the  growing  of  corn  for  the  canning  factory. 

Varieties. — Varieties  of  sweet  corn  are  usually  grouped  into  three 
classes  or  groups,  early,  medium  and  late.  These  terms  are  somewhat 
confusing  since  the  so-called  early  varieties  are  often  planted  late  in  the 
season,  much  later  than  the  so-called  late  varieties.  The  terms  refer  to 
the  length  of  time  required  to  produce  edible  ears,  and  when  varieties  of 
these  three  classes  are  planted  at  the  same  time  in  the  spring  "early," 
'medium"  and  "late"  characterize  them  with  reference  to  time  of 
edible  maturity.     However,  there  is  some  overlapping. 

The  following  characterization  of  the  important  varieties  is  given  to 
indicate  the  general  characteristics  and  not  for  purposes  of  identification : 

Adams  Early. — This  is  not  a  true  sweet  corn,  but  a  variety  of  field 
corn  which  is  grown  for  use  in  the  green  state.  It  is  early,  and  more 
hardy  than  most  varieties  of  sweet  corn.  The  plant  is  of  medium  size 
(6  to  8  feet  tall) ;  ears  8  to  10  inches  long;  grains  white;  husk  thick.  This 
variety  is  not  of  high  quality,  but  is  grown  to  some  extent  because  it  is 
hardy  and  may  be  planted  early.  The  thick  husk  may  be  of  some  advan- 
tage in  the  South  where  the  corn  ear  worm  is  a  serious  enemy  of  sweet 
corn. 

Mayflower  (Early  Mayflower). — This  is  an  early  variety  of  sweet 
corn  very  popular  in  some  sections  of  the  East.  It  is  a  small-growing 
variety  with  small  ears,  5  to  6  inches  long;  grains  white;  quality  fair  to 
good  for  a  very  early  variety. 

Early  Minnesota. — A  standard  early  variety,  fairly  rank  grower; 
ears  small  in  size,  5  to  7  inches  long;  grains  white;  quality  good. 

White  Cob  Cory. — This  is  one  of  the  earliest  varieties,  and  is  very 
popular  in  many  sections.  The  plants  are  small,  4  to  5  feet  high;  ears 
small,  containing  8  rows  of  white  kernels. 


448  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

Red  Cob  Cory. — This  is  similar  to  the  preceding  variety  in  general 
characters  except  that  it  has  a  red  cob. 

Golden  Bantam. — This  is  the  best  known  of  the  yellow  varieties  of 
sweet  corn  and  is  one  of  the  parents  of  most  of  the  others.  During  the 
past  few  years  the  Golden  Bantam  and  other  yellow  varieties  have  become 
very  popular.  In  some  regions  this  is  by  far  the  most  important  early 
variety.  The  plants  are  small  and  sucker  freely;  ears  small,  5  to  6  inches 
long,  8-rowed;  grains  large,  rich  yellow  color;  quality  good.  It  is  not 
as  early  as  some  of  the  white  varieties. 

Crosby. — This  is  a  second-early  or  midseason  variety  and  one  of  the 
old  standbys.  The  plant  is  small;  ears  5  to  7  inches  long,  with  10  or 
12  rows  of  white  kernels;  quality  good. 

Metropolitan. — This  is  a  small-growing,  second-early  variety,  with 
medium  to  large  ears  (8  to  9  inches  long);  10  to  12  rows  of  white  kernels; 
quality  good. 

Kendel's  Early  Giant. — A  second-early  variety,  producing  large 
ears,  with  10  to  12  or  more  rows  of  white  kernels;  quality  good. 

Howling  Mob. — This  is  a  small-growing,  midseason  variety,  producing 
medium  to  large  ears  with  12  to  14  rows  of  white  kernels.  In  some 
sections  of  the  East  this  is  the  most  important  market  variety.  It  is 
prolific  and  of  very  good  quality. 

Black  Mexican. — This  is  a  medium-growing,  second-early  or  mid- 
season  variety.  The  ears  are  medium  in  size,  containing  8  to  10  rows  of 
kernels.  The  kernels  turn  to  purple  and  black  in  color  and  for  this  reason 
it  is  not  a  popular  market  variety.  It  is  of  high  quality  and  is  grown  to 
some  extent  for  home  use. 

Golden  Giant. — This  is  a  second-early  or  midseason  variety,  and  is 
said  to  be  a  cross  between  Golden  Bantam  and  Howling  Mob.  The 
ears  are  larger  than  Golden  Bantam,  but  have  the  same  color  and  much 
the  same  flavor. 

Other  Midseason  Yellow  Varieties. — There  are  many  so-called 
midseason  varieties  of  yellow  sweet  corn,  including  Butter  Cup,  Semour's 
Sweet  Orange,  Whipple's  New  Yellow  and  Golden  Rod.  All  of  these  are 
larger  than  Golden  Bantam  and  are  becoming  popular  on  the  market. 
They  are  very  similar  in  general  appearance  and  in  quality. 

Stowell's  Evergreen. — ^This  is  one  of  the  old  varieties  and  is  still 
the  leading  late  corn  for  market  and  the  most  important  canning  variety. 
It  is  a  rank  grower  and  produces  large  ears  with  12  to  20  rows  of 
kernels.     The  kernels  are  white,  deep,  and  of  fine  flavor. 

Country  Gentleman.^ — The  stalk  and  ears  of  this  variety  are  of 
medium  size.  The  grains  are  small,  deep,  white  in  color,  and  irregularly 
arranged.  This  is  considered  a  good  variety  for  market  and  also  for 
canning.  The  irregular  rows  and  the  lack  of  space  between  the  rows 
make  it  somewhat  objectionable  for  serving  on  the  cob. 


SWERT  CORN,  OKRA,  MARTYNIA  449 

Long  Island  Beauty. — A  large-growing,  late  variety,  with  large  ears, 
very  popular  on  Long  Island.  The  kernels  are  small  and  are  arranged  in 
12  to  18  rows.  The  quality  is  fair,  not  as  good  as  Stowell's  Evergreen 
and  many  of  the  other  varieties. 

Bantam  Evergreen. — This  variety  is  a  cross  between  Golden 
Bantam  and  Stowell's  Evergreen.  The  stalks  are  medium  to  large  in 
size  and  the  ears  are  large  and  contain  14  to  18  rows  of  medium-sized 
kernels  of  a  yellow  color.  The  quality  is  good  and  the  variety  is  a  heavy 
yielder.     This  is  a  popular  late  variety  of  yellow  sweet  corn. 

Golden  Cream. — This  is  said  to  be  a  cross  between  Golden  Bantam 
and  Country  Gentleman,  combining  the  color  and  flavor  of  the  former 
with  the  size  of  the  latter.  It  is  a  late  variety,  but  not  quite  so  late  as 
Country  Gentleman.     The  color  is  light  yellow;  quality  good. 

Insects. — Several  insects  attack  sweet  corn  and  under  some  conditions 
severe  injury  is  done.  The  most  destructive  insects  are  the  corn  ear 
worm,  European  corn  borer,  southern  corn  rootworm,  cutworms,  white 
grubs  and  wireworms.     The  last  three  are  discussed  in  Chapter  XIII. 

Corn  Earworm. — The  corn  earworm  is  a  very  serious  pest  of  sweet 
corn  in  the  South  and  in  many  sections  of  the  North,  but  is  usually  not 
present  in  injurious  numbers  in  the  northern  part  of  the  sweet  corn  belt. 
This  insect  is  the  same  as  the  bollworm  of  cotton  and  the  fruitworm  of 
tomato.  It  is  also  called  the  tobacco  budworm,  and  it  attacks  pumpkins, 
squashes,  melons,  peppers  and  other  vegetables.  The  worm  in  the  larval 
stage  of  a  moth  (Heliothis  obsoleta)  and  when  full  grown  is  1)  2  ^^  2  inches 
long,  and  varying  in  color  from  light  green  to  brown.  The  eggs  are  laid 
on  the  silk  and  the  larvae  work  their  way  down  under  the  husk  where 
they  feed  on  the  silk  and  unripe  kernels.  Even  where  the  insects  do  not 
eat  very  much  of  the  corn  the  injury  is  serious  because  of  the  entrance  of 
rain  through  the  opening  made  by  the  worm  and  this  is  followed  by  decay. 

No  thoroughly  satisfactory  and  practicable  control  measure  has  been 
found  for  this  insect  although  dusting  the  silk  with  arsenate  of  lead  powder 
has  greatly  reduced  the  injury.  A  mixture  of  50  per  cent  arsenate  of  lead 
powder  and  50  per  cent  ground  sulphur  proved  quite  successful  in  experi- 
ments in  New  Jersey.  This  treatment  has  not  been  used  to  an}--  great 
extent  in  commercial  plantings. 

Crop  rotation  is  of  little  value,  as  the  insect  feeds  upon  many  kinds  of 
plants,  including  grasses  and  clovers. 

European  Corn  Borer  (Pyrausta  nubilalis). — This  pest  was  recently 
introduced  from  Europe  and  is  now  found  in  New  England,  New  York, 
northwestern  Pennsylvania,  Ontario,  northern  Ohio  and  southern 
Michigan,  including  all  counties  bordering  on  Lake  Erie.  The  larva  is 
about  three-fourths  of  an  inch  long,  yellowish-gray  in  color  with  faint 
reddish  or  brownish  stripes.  The  caterpillars  bore  into  all  parts  of  the 
plant  except  the  root  and  cause  great  damage  when  they  are  present  in 

29 


450  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

considerable  numbers.  The  breaking  over  of  the  tassels  due  to  the 
feeding  of  the  caterpillars,  the  sawdust-like  borings  on  the  stalks  in  mid- 
summer, and  later  the  breaking  over  of  the  stalk  just  above  the  ear  are 
characteristics  by  which  the  presence  of  the  insect  may  be  detected. 

This  insect  feeds  upon  a  great  many  plants  including  many  vegetables 
and  flowers,  field  corn,  sorghums,  millets  and  a  large  number  of  weeds. 
This  makes  control  very  difficult  if  not  impossible.  To  reduce  the  danger 
of  serious  damage  and  rapid  spread  of  the  insect  to  new  territory  Cotton 
(30)  suggests  the  adoption  of  the  following  precautions: 

1.  Cut  corn  close  to  the  ground  as  early  as  practicable. 

2.  Place  as  large  a  part  of  the  crop  in  the  silo  as  is  possible.  This  should 
include  all  waste  from  canning  factories.     The  fermentation  destroys  the  borers. 

3.  Cut  or  shred  cornstalks  before  feeding  same;  this  kills  many  of  the  borers 
and  promotes  consumption  of  the  fodder. 

4.  Uneaten  cornstalks,  including  corn  stover  in  the  field,  lot  or  barn,  or 
parts  of  the  stalks,  should  be  completely  plowed  under  or  burned  before  May 
15,  to  destroy  contained  borers. 

5.  Fall  plowing,  especially  early  fall  plowing,  thoroughly  done,  kiUs  many 
borers.     Heavy  rolling  before  plowing  is  suggested. 

6.  Burn  weeds  and  grass  in  or  near  infested  fields. 

7.  Early-planted  corn  is  more  Ukely  to  become  infested,  somewhat  later 
planting  usually  results  in  relatively  less  injury.  Early -planted  corn  should  be 
closely  watched  and  promptly  fed  to  stock  before  the  stalks  begin  to  dry  if  it 
shows  infestation. 

8.  In  infested  areas,  planting  of  coarse-stemmed  vegetables  to  be  sold  in 
green  condition  should  not  be  closer  than  50  feet  to  early  corn. 

To  prevent  the  spread  of  this  insect,  strict  State  and  Federal  quaran- 
tine measures  have  been  established,  governing  the  transportation  from 
infested  areas,  of  plants  or  plant  products,  likely  to  contain  the  larvae. 

Southern  Corn  Rootworm. — This  pest  is  the  larvae  or  young  of  the 
twelve-spotted  cucumber  beetle.  Great  injury  is  often  done  to  corn  of 
all  kinds  and  to  n\aa\y  other  food  plants  in  the  South,  including  peanuts, 
beans  and  cucurbits.  The  injury  to  corn  is  done  by  the  larvae  in  the 
spring  when  the  plants  are  small.  At  this  time  they  feed  upon  the 
roots  and  bud,  boring  through  the  crown  at  the  base  of  the  stalk  to  reach 
the  bud.  Injury  is  greatest  when  corn  is  planted  in  damp  locations  and 
in  meadows. 

When  the  insect  is  feeding  upon  the  corn  roots  insecticides  are  of  no 
value,  but  destruction  of  the  beetles  when  they  feed  upon  the  above- 
ground  portions  of  cucurbits  and  other  plants  will  reduce  the  injury  done 
by  the  larvae.  Crop  rotation,  using  cotton,  small  grains  and  vegetables 
other  than  beans  and  cucurbits  will  aid  in  controlling  this  insect. 

Corn  Smut  (Ustilago  zeae). — This  disease  occurs  everywhere  corn  is 
grown  and  is  easily  recognized  in  the  later  stages  as  black  masses  upon 


SWEET  CORN,  OKRA,  MARTY NI A 


451 


the  ear  and  tassel.  The  first  symptom  is  a  pale  shining,  swollen  area 
covered  with  a  white  membrane,  which  soon  appears  black  due  to  the 
maturing  of  the  spores  on  the  inside.  The  membrane  finally  bursts  and 
releases  a  powdery,  black  mass  of  spores.  The  (hsease  is  not  carried  on 
the  seed. 

There  is  no  practicable  control  measure  except  to  gather  and  burn  the 
smutted  ears  and  stalks  before  the  spores  are  released.  This  method  is 
usually  not  practiced  because  the  disease  seldom  affects  more  than  1  to 
2  per  cent  of  the  ears. 

Harvesting. — Sweet  corn,  to  have  high  quahty,  should  be  harvested 
in  the  milk  stage,  since  the  amount  of  sugar  decreases  and  the  amount 
of  starch  increases  as  it  passes  from  this  stage  to  the  dough  stage.  The 
amount  of  water  likewise  decreases  and  the  corn  becomes  harder.  Analy- 
ses of  Stowell's  Evergreen  sweet  corn  reported  by  Appleman  (2)  show  the 
composition  at  various  stages  in  the  development  of  the  kernels.  While 
there  was  considerable  difference  in  the  composition  of  different  samples 
representing  any  stage  of  ripening,  the  averages  shown  in  Table  LXVII 
indicate  quite  well  the  changes  taking  place  during  this  period.  Data 
were  secured  on  two  crops  designated  as  ''early"  and  "late." 


Table  LXVII. 


-Average  Percentage  Composition  of  Sweet  Corn  at  Different 
Stages  of  Ripening 


Crop 


Stage  of 
ripening 


Number 

Mois- 

of 

ture, 

tests 

per  cent 

9 

85.10 

18 

80.16 

9 

71.07 

18 

63.92 

14 

88.75 

16 

83.54 

16 

77.95 

Total 

sugar, 

per  cent 


Starch, 
per  cent 


Early 
Early 
Early 
Early 
Late. 
Late. 
Late. 


Premilk 

Milk 

Early  dough 

Dough 

Premilk 

Milk 

Early  dough 


6.26 
5.79 
3.91 
3.17 
5.76 
5.81 
3.38 


3.29 

7.72 

16.35 

21.62 

2.71 

5.51 

11.24 


An  examination  of  Table  LXVII  will  show  that  as  ripening  proceeds 
the  increase  in  the  percentage  of  starch  is  greater  than  can  be  accounted 
for  by  the  decrease  in  the  percentage  of  sugar. 

After  sweet  corn  is  harvested  it  should  be  handled  quickly  and  at  as 
low  a  temperature  as  possible  for  the  quality  deteriorates  rapidly.  There 
is  a  rapid  loss  of  sugap  at  the  temperatures  that  usually  prevail  during 
the  corn-harvesting  season,  and  only  the  home  gardener  can  have 
sweet  corn  of  the  very  best  quality.  Appleman  and  Arthur  (3)  and 
Stevens  and  Higgins  (142)  have  shown  that  the  rate  of  sugar  loss  increases 
with  rise  of  temperature  at  least  up  to  30  degrees  C.     Appleman  and 


452 


VEGETABLE  CROPS 


Arthur,  working  with  Stowell's  Evergreen  conducted  a  series  of  experi- 
ments in  which  sweet  corn  was  kept  at  seven  accurately  controlled 
temperatures,  namely  0,  5,  20,  30  and  40  degrees  C.  Analj^ses  were  made 
to  determine  the  loss  of  sugar  during  consecutive  24-hour  periods  of 
storage  at  these  temperatures  and  the  results  are  shown  in  Table  LXVIII. 

Table  LXVIII. — Loss  of  Sugar  from  Green  Sweet  Cokn  during  Consecutive 

24-HOUR  Periods  of  Storage  at  Different  Temperatures.     Total  Sugars 

AND  Losses  are  Expressed  in  Percentages 

(Appleman  and  Arthur) 

All  Sugars 


Storage  temperatures 

Number 

of  hours 

Ear 

0   degrees   C. 

10  degrees  C. 

20  degrees  C. 

30  degrees  C. 

40  degrees  C. 

in 

lot 

storage 

TotaH 

Total' 

Lossi 

Total" 

Loss' 

Total' 

Loss' 

Total' 

Loss' 

0 

la 

5.91 

.... 

5.83 

6.17 

5.34 

6.72 

24 

lb 

5.43 

0.48 

4.83 

1.00 

4.59 

1.58 

2.65 

2.69 

3.64 

3.08 

24 

2o 

6.70 

3.95 

3.68 

3.11 

2.30 

48 

2b 

5.96 

0.74 

3.43 

0.52 

2.69 

0.99 

2.68 

0.43 

1.69 

0.61 

48 

3a 

6.63 

4.61 

3.07 

2.10 

2.00 

72 

3b 

6.36 

0.27 

3.92 

0.69 

2.52 

0.55 

2.03 

0.07 

1.90 

0.10 

72 

4a 

6.10 

3.54 

2.24 

1.59 

96 

46 

5.75 

0.35 

2.93 

0.61 

1.97 

0.27 

1.49 

0.10 

'  Total  quantities  of  all  sugars  before  and  after  storage  and  losses  during  storage  are  expressed  in 
percentages. 

Summarizing  the  results  of  their  work  the  authors  have  the  following 
to  say: 

The  depletion  of  sugar  in  green  corn  after  it  is  separated  from  the  stalk  does 
not  proceed  at  a  uniform  rate  but  becomes  slower  and  slower  until  finally  the 
loss  of  sugar  ceases  when  the  initial  total  sugar  has  decreased  about  62  per  cent 
and  the  sucrose  about  70  per  cent.  Calculated  on  the  basis  of  original  moisture, 
the  corn  contained,  when  the  depletion  of  sugar  ceased,  approximately  1.5  per 
cent  total  sugar  as  invert  sugar,  0.7  per  cent  sucrose  and  0.8  per  cent  free-reduc- 
ing substances.  The  actual  percentage  of  sugars  would  depend  upon  the  amount 
of  water  in  the  corn  after  storage.  Under  the  experimental  conditions  there 
was  very  little  change  in  the  percentage  of  water  in  the  corn  employed  in  this 
work. 

Reversibility  of  the  chief  processes  involved  in  the  sugar  depletion,  resulting 
in  an  equilibrium  between  the  rate  of  sugar  loss  and  the  rate  of  sugar  formation, 
would  account  for  the  cessation  of  actual  sugar  loss.   .    .    . 

Raising  the  temperature  simply  hastens  the  attainment  of  the  equilibrium 
positions,  which  seem  to  be  about  the  same  for  all  temperatures.  At  30  degrees 
C,  50  per  cent  or  most  of  the  total  sugar  loss  occurs  during  the  first  24  hours  of 
storage.  At  20  degrees,  25  per  cent  and  at  10  degrees,  or  good  refrigerator 
temperature,  only  about  15  per  cent  is  depleted  during  the  same  period.  .    .    . 


SWEET  CORN,  OKRA,  MARTYNIA  453 

In  general,  it  may  be  stated  that  the  rate  of  sugar  loss,  until  it  reaches  50 
per  cent  of  the  initial  total  sugar  and  60  per  cent  of  the  sucrose,  is  doubled  for 
every  increase  of  10  degrees  up  to  30  degrees  C. 

Respiration  in  green  corn  is  comparatively  high  when  the  corn  is  first  picked 
but  falls  off  rapidly  with  storage.  This  process,  however,  accounts  for  only 
a  small  part  of  the  actual  decrease  in  the  percentage  of  sugar  in  the  corn  during 
the  consecutive  24-liour  periods  of  storage  even  at  30  degrees  C.  One  ton  of 
husked  green  sweet  corn  during  the  first  24  hours  of  storage  at  30  degrees  would 
lose  approximately  3.2  pounds  of  sugar  on  account  of  respiration. 

Respiration  may  become  indirectly  a  more  important  factor  in  accelerating 
the  depletion  of  sugar  by  raising  the  temperature  on  the  inside  of  large  piles  of 
green  corn. 

Most  of  the  decrease  in  the  percentage  of  sugar  in  green  sweet  corn  during 
storage  is  due  to  condensation  of  polysaccharides,  chiefly  starch. 

Sweet  corn  often  becomes  heated  after  being  pulled  from  the  stalk, 
especially  when  loaded  into  tight  wagon  beds  for  hauhng  to  the  canning 
factory.  The  load  often  stands  over  night.  Under  such  conditions  the 
quality  deteriorates  rapidly,  and  while  the  sugar  loss  is  made  up  by 
the  addition  of  sugar  when  the  corn  is  prepared  for  canning  the  product 
is  not  as  good  as  when  it  is  canned  before  it  has  changed  in  composition. 

It  is  difficult  for  the  inexperienced  to  determine  when  sweet  corn  is  in 
the  best  edible  condition  without  pulling  down  the  husk  and  examining  the 
kernels.  The  general  appearance  of  the  husk  and  silk,  and  the  plump- 
ness of  the  ear  are  evidences  of  the  stage  of  ripeness,  and  are  sufficient 
for  the  average  grower.  By  observing  the  general  characters  mentioned 
and  correlating  them  with  the  stage  of  ripeness,  as  indicated  by  the  nail 
test,  the  inexperienced  will  soon  learn  to  determine  when  sweet  corn 
should  be  harvested  without  examining  the  kernels.  In  the  nail  test  the 
thumb-nail  is  thrust  into  the  kernel,  and  if  the  exudate  is  milky  the  corn 
is  said  to  be  in  the  milk  stage.  If  dough  is  forced  out  of  the  kernel  by 
the  nail  the  corn  is  said  to  be  in  the  dough  stage  and  is  too  ripe  for  the 
best  quality. 

The  ears  are  usually  pulled  from  the  stalk  by  a  quick  jerk,  and  if  the 
stalk  at  the  base  of  the  ear  is  too  long  it  is  broken  off.  All  ears  should 
have  about  the  same  length  of  stalk  and  the  same  amount  of  husk.  The 
corn  harvested  for  market  is  usually  placed  in  boxes,  baskets,  or  bags  as 
removed  from  the  stalk  and  these  are  later  placed  on  a  wagon.  For  the 
canning  factory  the  ears  are  sometimes  thrown  direct  to  the  wagon  bed. 

Grading  and  Packing  for  Market. — Sweet  corn  is,  as  a  rule,  not  very 
carefully  graded,  but  the  best  growers  do  grade  and  find  that  it  is  a  very 
desirable  practice.  Grading  is  especially  important  where  the  ears  are 
put  up  in  packages  and  of  course,  a  package  should  contain  only  one 
grade.  The  best  grade  should  contain  ears  of  medium  size  and  uniform 
in  every  particular. 


454  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

Since  market  sweet  corn  is  grown  mainly  by  market  gardeners  the  use 
of  closed  packages  is  not  very  common.  All  types  of  containers  are  used 
for  conveying  corn  to  local  markets.  Some  markets  use  bushel  boxes, 
others  use  baskets  of  various  kinds,  while  some  use  special  crates.  Bags 
are  sometimes  used  but  they  are  the  least  desirable  type  of  container, 
since  they  do  not  show  off  the  corn  to  good  advantage  and  they  also 
interfere  with  the  circulation  of  air. 

When  sweet  corn  is  to  be  shipped  considerable  distances  the  ears 
should  be  carefully  packed  in  a  well- ventilated  crate  or  box  and  loaded 
into  refrigerator  cars.  Even  with  the  closest  attention  to  these  factors 
there  is  considerable  deterioration  in  quality  'when  the  product  is  in 
transit  two  days  or  more. 

OKRA 

Okra  or  gumbo  is  an  important  crop  in  many  parts  of  the  Old  World, 
where  it  is  used  in  the  dried  form  in  large  quantities.  In  the  United 
States  it  is  not  of  great  commercial  importance,  although  it  is  a  popular 
vegetable  in  the  South,  where  it  is  grown  quite  generally  in  the  home 
garden.  The  Bureau  of  Census  reports  the  value  of  okra  grown  for  sale 
in  the  United  States  in  1919  as  $117,175  and  an  average  value  per  acre 
of  $119. 

History  and  Taxonomy. — Okra  is  thought  to  be  of  African,  or  Asiatic 
origin,  probably  both.  It  was  probably  not  cultivated  during  ancient 
times  as  it  is  not  mentioned  in  the  early  literature.  It  was  known  by 
the  Spanish  Moors  and  was  used  by  the  Egyptians  in  the  twelfth 
or  thirteenth  century.  Okra  is  mentioned  as  having  been  grown 
in  Philadelphia  in  1748  and  was  listed  by  Jefferson  in  1781  as  being 
grown  in  Virginia.  McMahon  (1806)  also  mentions  its  culture  in 
the  South. 

Okra  is  known  under  the  botanical  name  Hibiscus  esculentum  L.,  and 
belongs  to  the  Malvaceae  or  mallow  family.  Many  other  species  of 
hibiscus  are  used  as  foods  in  various  parts  of  the  world.  In  this  genus 
belongs  many  species  of  flowering  hibiscus,  several  of  which  are  native  of 
the  United  States.  Cotton  is  the  most  important  economic  plant  belong- 
ing to  the  mallow  family. 

Culture. — Okra  is  a  tender  plant  and  grows  best  in  hot  weather.  In 
regions  having  a  short  growing  season  and  relatively  cool  nights  the  crop 
does  not  thrive  well.  In  such  regions  a  supply  for  home  use  can  be 
grown  if  quick-maturing,  dwarf  varieties  are  selected,  and  the  seed  is 
planted  as  soon  as  the  soil  becomes  warm. 

In  the  South  two  or  three  plantings,  at  intervals  of  3  to  4  weeks 
apart,  are  sometimes  made  in  order  to  have  a  continuous  supply  from  the 
time  the  first  pods  are  ready  until  frosts  occur  in  the  fall.  However,  if 
the  pods  are  gathered  while  they  are  still  young  and  tender  and  if  none 


SWEET  CORN,  OKRA,  MARTY NI A  455 

are  allowed  to  mature  the  plants  will  continue  bearing  for  a  considerable 
period. 

Seed  is  drilled  quite  thickly  in  rows  23>-2  to  4  feet  apart.  When  the 
plants  are  established  they  are  thinned  to  stand  12  inches  apart  for  dwarf 
varieties  and  18  to  24  inches  for  the  large  varieties. 

Any  good  garden  soil  will  produce  a  satisfactory  crop  of  okra  if  other 
conditions  are  favorable.  If  the  soil  is  not  rich  a  liberal  application  of 
fertilizer  or  manure  is  desirable.  A  complete  fertilizer  high  in  nitrogen  is 
recommended  for  the  average  sandy  loam  soil  where  manure  is  not  used. 
An  application  of  500  to  1,000  pounds  to  the  acre  of  a  5-10-5  mixture  is 
suggested. 

The  cultivation  given  okra  should  be  about  the  same  as  for  any  other 
cultivated  crop. 

Varieties. — Beattie  (11)  states  that  there  are  three  general  types  of 
okra,  tall  green,  dwarf  green  and  lady  finger. 

"Each  of  these  is  again  divided  according  to  the  length  and  color  of  the 
pods,  making  in  all  six  classes  or  varieties,  namely,  tall  green,  long  pod; 
tall  green,  short  pod;  dwarf  green,  long  pod;  dwarf  green,  short  pod;  lady 
finger,  white  pod  and  lady  finger,  green  pod.  All  variations  from  these 
are  merely  the  results  of  mixtures,  no  true  crosses  or  hybrids  being 
formed.  These  mixtures  are  easily  separated  and  referred  to  the  parent 
type,  and  a  little  attention  to  rogueing  and  selection  is  necessary  in 
order  to  keep  the  varieties  pure.  It  is  essential  that  the  varietal  strain 
should  be  pure  in  order  that  a  uniform  and  marketable  lot  of  pods  may 
be  produced." 

There  are  relatively  few  varieties  listed  by  the  seedsmen.  Many 
seedsmen  mention  White  Velvet,  Perkins  Mammoth,  Dwarf  Green  and 
Lady  Finger. 

Harvesting. — The  long  seed  pods  are  the  edible  portion,  and  as  these 
develop  rapidly,  they  should  be  gathered  every  day.  Only  the  young 
tender  pods  are  desired  as  the  older  pods  become  woody  and  tough. 
They  are  broken  or  cut  from  the  stalk,  and  when  they  are  to  be  marketed 
they  should  be  sorted  into  the  various  sizes  and  packed  in  small  baskets. 
The  pods  become  tough  quickly  after  being  removed  from  the  plant  and, 
for  this  reason,  they  should  be  placed  on  the  market  as  soon  as  possible. 
Shipping  to  distant  markets  is  not  a  common  practice  because  the  pods 
do  not  remain  in  good  condition  for  a  sufficient  length  of  time. 

Uses  of  Okra. — The  principal  use  of  okra*  is  in  soups  and  stews, 
in  which  meats  form  an  important  part,  as  in  the  so-called  gumbo  soups. 
The  pods  are  sometimes  stewed  and  eaten  as  a  vegetable,  being  seasoned 
with  pepper,  salt  and  butter.  Okra  is  sometimes  canned,  either  alone,  or 
in  a  soup  mixture  with  other  vegetables.  Okra  or  gumbo  soup  is  very 
much  relished  b\^  persons  who  have  acquired  a  taste  for  it  and  it  is  a 
fairly  common  article  of  diet  in  the  South. 


45G 


VEGETABLE  CROPS 


In  Turkey  the  young  pods  of  okra  are  dried  in  large  quantities  for  use 
in  the  diet.  Many  tons  of  the  dried  product  are  brought  into  the  United 
States  each  year  in  order  to  meet  the  demand  among  the  foreign  popula- 
tion, especially  the  Turks. 

MARTYNIA 

Martynia  or  Unicorn  Plant,  Martynia  prohoscidea  {Martynia  Louisiana 
or  Prohoscidea  Louisiana)  is  a  native  of  south-western  United  States.  It  is 
grown  to  a  ver}--  slight  extent  in  home  gardens  mainly  as  a  curiosity,  but  its 


MartjTiia  plant  and  fruit. 


seed  pods  are  used  for  pickling  when  young.  The  pods  are  green,  very 
hairy,  fleshy,  13^^  inches  at  their  greatest  diameter  tapering  to  a  long, 
slender  incurved  beak  or  horn.  (Fig.  32.)  The  plant  grows  V/i  to 
2  feet  high  and  is  rather  wide  spreading. 

In  the  South,  Martynia  seed  may  be  sown  in  rows  3  feet  apart  and  the 
plants  thinned  to  stand  18  to  24  inches  apart  in  the  row.  In  the  North 
the  plants  should  be  started  in  the  greenhouse  and  later  transplanted  to 
the  garden.  A  warm  soil  is  especially  desirable  in  the  North.  The 
general  cultural  requirements  of  this  plant  are  about  the  same  as  for  okra. 


LITERATURE  CITED 

Explanation. — No  effort  has  been  made  to  give  an  extended  bibliography  since 
the  author  believes  that  this  is  not  necessary,  but  merely  to  list  those  actually  referred 
to  in  the  text. 

1.  App,  Frank  and  Waller,  A.  G.     Costs,  profits  and  practices  of  the  can-house 

tomato  industry  in  New  Jersey.     A^.  /.  Bull.  353.     1921. 

2.  Appleman,  C.  O.     Reliability  of  the  nail  test  for  predicting  the  chemical  com- 

position of  green  sweet  corn.     Jour.  Agr.  Res.  21,  No.  1:  817-820.     1921. 

3.  Appleman,  C.  O.  and  Arthur,  J.  M.     Carbohydrate  metabolism  in  green  sweet 

corn  during  storage  at  different  temperature.     Jour.  Agr.  Res.   17,  No.  4. 
1919. 

4.  Appleman,  C.  O.     Changes  in  Irish  potatoes  during  storage.     Md.  Bull.  167. 

1912. 

5.  Austin,  C.  F.  and  White,  T.  H.     Second  report  on  the  cause  of  pithiness  in 

celery.     Md.  Bull.  93.     1904. 

6.  Bailey,  L.  H.     Tomatoes.     N.  Y.  Cornell  Bidl.  45.     1892. 

7.  Bailey,  L.  H.     Principles  of  vegetable  gardening.     The  Macmillan  Company, 

New  York.     1921. 

8.  Ball,  E.  D.  and  Walter,  E.  V.     Injury  from  white  grubs  in  Iowa.     loiva  Cir. 

60.     1919. 

9.  Ballou,  F.  H.     The  status  of  the  potato  industry  in  Ohio.     Ohio  Bull.  218. 

1910. 

10.  Beattie,  J.  H.     Truck  growing  on  muck  in  the  Kankakee  Marsh  of  northern 

Indiana.     Jour.  A?)}.  Peat  Soc.  14,  No.  2.     1921. 

11.  Beattie,  W.  R.     Okra:  Its  culture  and  uses.     F.  B.  232.     1905. 

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18.  Brown,  H.  D.     Canning  factory  tomatoes.     Ind.  Bull.  259.     1922. 

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458  VEGETABLE  CROPS 

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65.  Hartwell,  B.  L.     Relative  growth  responses  of  crops  to  each  fertilizer  ingre- 

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66.  Hartwell,  B.  L.  and  Crandall,  F.  K.     The  substitution  of  stable  manure  by 

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68.  Hartwell,  B.  L.,  Fember,  R.  R.  and  Merkle,  G.  E.     The  influence  of  crop 

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69.  Hartwell,  B.  L.  and  Damon,  S.  C.     The  comparative  effect  on  different  kinds 

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71.  Hasselbring,   H.   H.   and   Hawkins,  L.   A.     Physiological  changes  in  sweet 

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72.  Hendry,  G.  W.     Bean  culture  in  California.     Calif.  Bull.  294.     1918. 

73.  Holden,  J.  A.     Results  with  potatoes  grown  in  thirteen  different  rotations 

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74.  Humbert,  J.  G.     Tomato  diseases  in  Ohio.     Ohio  Bull.  321.     1918. 

75.  Irish,  H.  C.     Garden  beans  as  cultivated  esculents.     Twelfth  Ann.  Rept.  Mo. 

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76.  Irish,  H.  C.     Revision  of  the  genus  Capsicum.     Ninth  Ann.  Rept.  Mo.  Bot. 

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77.  Jagger,  I.  C.     Bacterial  leafspot  disease  of  celery.     Jour.  Agr.  Res.  21,  No.  3. 

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79.  Jarvis,  C.  D.     American  varieties  of  beans.     A^.  Y.  Cornell  Bull.  260.     1908. 

80.  Jones,  T.  H.     The  eggplant  tortoise  beetle.     U.  S.  D.  A.  Bull.  422.     1916. 

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82.  Kezer,  Alvin  and  Sackett,  W.  G.     Beans  in  Colorado  and  their  diseases. 

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83.  Kinney,  L.  F.     Spinach  culture  in  Rhode  Island.     R.  I.  Bull.  41.     1896. 

84.  Klebs,  Georg.     Alteration  in  the  development  and  forms  of  plants  as  a  result 

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85.  Kohler,  a.  R.     Potato  experiments  and  studies  at  University  Farm.     Minn. 

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86.  Kraus,  E.  J.  and  Kra-j-bill,  H.  R.     Vegetation  and  reproduction  with  special 

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87.  Lloyd,  J,  W.     Fertilizer  experiments  with  muskmelons.     III.  Bull.  155.     1912. 

88.  Lloyd,  J.  W.     Experiments  in  onion  culture.     ///.  Bull.  175.     1914. 

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90.  Macoun,  W.  T.     The  potato  and  its  culture.     Canada  Agr.  Dcpl.  Bull.  id. 

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91.  McClintock,  J.  A.  and  Smith,  L.  B.     The  nature  of  spinach  blight  and  the 

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92.  McCuE,  C.  A.  and  Pelton,  W.  C.     Tomatoes  for  the  canning  factory.     Del. 

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93.  McKay,  A.  W.,  Fischer,  G.  L.  and  Nelson,  A.  E.     The  handhng  and  trans- 

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94.  McIMahon,  B.     Amer.  Card.   Cal.  200.     1806. 

95.  Meier,  F.  C.     Control  of  watermelon  anthracnose  by  spraying.      U.  S.  D.  A. 

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96.  Millar,  C.  E.     Hill  fertilization  of  corn.     Mich.  Quar.  Bull.  5,  No.  2.     1922. 

97.  Morse,  L.  L.     Field  notes  on  lettuce.     C.  C.  Morse  &  Co.     San  Francisco, 

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98.  Morse,  F.  W.     A  chemical  study  of  the  asparagus  plant.     Mass.  Bull.  171. 

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99.  Morse,  W.  J.     Cowpeas;  culture  and  varieties.     F.  B.  1148.     1920. 

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101.  Mosier,  J,  G.  and  Gustafson,  A.  F.     Soil  moisture  and  tillage  for  corn.     III. 

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102.  MuNSON,  W.  M.     Notes  on  tomatoes.     Me.  Ann.  Rept.     1893. 

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104.  Myers,  C.  E.     Experiments  with  cabbage.     Penn.  Bull.  137.     1916. 

105.  Myers,  C.  E.     Strain  tests  of  cabbage.     Penn.  Bull.  119.     1912. 

106.  Myers,  C.  E.     Report  of  the  Hort.  Dept.     Peiin.  Ann.  Rept.     1915. 

107.  Newman,  C.  L.     Sweet  potato  experiments.     Ark.  Bull.  72.     1902. 

108.  Newman,  J.  S.     Southern  gardeners'  practical  manual.     1906. 

109.  Norton,  L.  J.     An  economic  study  of  the  production  of  canning  croi)s  in  New 

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110.  Olney,  a.  J.     Some  experiments  with  tomatoes.     Ky.  Bull.  218.     1918. 

111.  Orton,  W.  a.  and  Chittenden,  F.  H.     Control  of  disease  and  insect  enemies  of 

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112.  Orton,  W.  A.     Watermelon  diseases.     F.  B.  821.     1917. 

113.  Parrott,  p.  J.     Control  of  sucking  insects  by  dusting.     Proc.  77lh  Ann.  Meeting 

N.  Y.  Hort.  Sue.     1922. 

114.  Patch,  Edith  M.     Rose  bushes  in  relation  to  potato  culture.     Me.  Bull.  303. 

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115.  Piper,  C.  V.     The  wild  prototype  of  the  cowpea.     B.  P.  I.  Cir.  124.     1913. 

116.  Piper,  C.  V.  and  Pieters,  A.  J.     Green  manuring.     F.  B.  1250.     1922. 

117.  Plumb,  C.  S.     Indian  corn  culture.     1895. 

118.  Price,  R.  H.     Sweet  potatoes.     7'e.r.  Bull.  28.     1893. 

119.  Pritchard,  F.  J.     Development  of  wilt-resistant  tomatoes.     U.  S.  D.  A.  Bull. 

1015.     1922. 

120.  Ramsey,  H.  J.  and  Markell,  E.  L.     The  handling  and  precooling  of  Florida 

lettuce  and  celery.     U.  S.  D.  A.  Bull.  601.     1917. 

121.  Rane,  F.  W.     The  classification  of  American  muskmelons.     N.  H.  Technical 

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122.  Rane,  F.  W.     Growing  watermelons  in  the  North;  classification  of  watermelons. 

A'.  H.  Bull.  86.     1902. 

123.  Ridley,    V.   W.     Handling  spinach  for  long-distance  shipment.     F.   B.   1189. 

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124.  Rolfs,  P.  H.     Tomato  diseases.     Fla.  Bull.  117.     1913. 


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125.  Rosa,  J.  T.  Jr.,  Profitable  tomato  fertilizers.     Mo.  Bull.  1G9.     191S. 

126.  Rosa,  J.  T.  Jr.,  Better  methods  of  tomato  production.     Mo.  Bull.  194.     1922. 

127.  Rosa,  J.  T.  Jr.,  Investigations  on  the  hardening  process  in  vegetable  plants. 

Mo.  Res.  Bull.  48.     1921. 

128.  Salaman,  R.  N.     Degeneration  in  potatoes.     Royal  Hort.  Soc.  Conf.     Nov., 

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129.  Sando,    C.  E.     The  process  of  ripening  in  the  tomato  considered  especially 

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130.  Sandsten,  E.  p.  and  White,  T.  H.     An  inquirj^  as  to  the  cause  of  pithiness  in 

celery.     Md.  Bull.  83.     1902. 

131.  ScHERMERHORN,  L.  G.  and  NissLEY,  C.  H.     Control  of  cabbage  maggot.     A'.  /. 

Cir.  138.     1922. 

132.  Sewel,   M.  C.     Tillage:  A  review  of  the  literature.     Ainer.  Soc.  Agroii.   11, 

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133.  Shaw,  G.  W.  and  Sherwin,  M.  E.     The  Production  of  the  Lima  bean.     Calif 

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134.  Sherbakoff,  C.  D.     Tomato  diseases.     Fla.  Bull.  146.     1918. 

135.  Shiver,  F.  S.     Sweet  potato.    II.    Changes  in  composition  on  storing.     S.  C. 

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136.  Shoemaker,  D.  N.     Seed  peas  for  the  canner.     F.  B.  1253.     1922. 

137.  Slate,  W.  L.,  Jr.  and  Brown,  B.  E.     Fertihzers  for  potatoes.     Conn.  (Storrs) 

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138.  Smith,   L.  B.     Breeding  mosaic -resistant  spinach  and  notes  on  malnutrition. 

Va.  Tr.  Expt.  Sta.  Bulls.  31  and  32.     1920. 

139.  Smith,  J.  Warren.     The  effect  of  weather  upon  the  yield  of  potatoes.     Mo. 

Weather  Rev.     May,  1915,  43. 

140.  Spencer,  A.  P.     Subirrigation.     Univ.  of  Fla.  Agr.  Ext.  Bull.  5.     1916. 

141.  Starnes,  H.  N.     Sweet  potatoes.     Ga.  Bull.  25.     1894. 

142.  Stevens,  N.  E.  and  Higgins,  C.  H.     Temperature  in  relation  to  sweet  corn. 

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143.  Stewart,  F.  C.  and  Mix,  A.  J.     Blackheart  and  the  aeration  of  potatoes  in 

storage.     N.  Y.  State  Sta.  Bull.  436.     1917. 

144.  Stewart,  F.  C.     Potato  seed  experiments:  Whole  small  tubers  vs.  pieces  of 

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145.  Stew^art,  F.  C.     Further  studies  on  the  effect  of  missing  hills  in  potato  fields 

and  on  variation  in  yield  of  potato  plants  from  halves  of  the  same  tuber. 
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146.  Stone,  J.  L.     Potato  growing  in  New  York.     A'.  F.  Cornell  Bull.  228.     1905. 

147.  Strahan,  J.  L.     Construction  and  management  of  root  cellars.     A^.  Y.  Cornell 

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148.  Straughn,  M.  N.     Sweet  corn  investigations.     Md.  Bull.  120.     1907. 

149.  Straughn,  M.  N.  and  Church,  C.  G.     The  influence  of  environment  on  the 

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150.  Stuart,  Wm.     Production  of  late  or  main  crop  potatoes.     F.  B.  1064.     1919. 

151.  Stuart,  Wm.     Group  classification  and  varietal  descriptions  of  some  American 

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152.  Stuart,   Wm.     Moisture  and  decay  loss  in  Hubbard  squash  in  storage.     Vt. 

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153.  Stuckey,  H.  p.     Transmission  of  resistance  and  susceptibility  to  blossom-end 

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154.  Stuckey,  H.  P.     Sweet  potatoes:  Culture,  storing  and  studies  in  fertilizing. 

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155.  Stuckey,  H.  P.     Tomatoes.     Ga.  Bull.  112.     1915. 


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156.  Stuckey,  H.  p.  and  McClintock,  J.  A.     Pimento  and  Bell  Peppers.     Ga.  Bull 

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157.  Sturtevant,    E.    L.     Sturtevant's    notes  on  edible  plants.     Edited  by  U.  P. 

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158.  Thompson,  H.  C.     Effects    of  cultivation  on  soil  moisture  and  on  yields  of 

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159.  Thompson,  H.  C.     Celery  storage  experiments.     U.  S.  D.  A.  Bull.  576.     1917. 

160.  Thompson,  H.  C.     Sweet  potato  storage.     F.  B.  970.     1917. 

161.  Thompson,  H.  C.  and  Beattie,  J.  H.     Classification  and  varietal  descriptions  of 

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162.  Thompson,  H.  C.  and  Beattie,  J.  H.     Sweet  potato  storage  studies.     U.  S. 

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163.  Thorne,  C.  E.     Increasing  the  yield  of  truck  crops.     Atm.  Repts.     1918,  and 

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164.  TiEBOUT,    G.   L.     Preliminary  report  on   winter   cauliflower.     La.   Bull.    140. 

1913. 

165.  Tracy,  W.  W.,  Jr.     American  varieties  of  garden  beans.     B.  P.  L  Bull.  109. 

1907. 

166.  Tracy,  W.  W.,  Jr.     American  varieties  of  lettuce.     B.  P.  7.  Bull.  69.     1904. 

167.  Tracy,  W.  W.,  Sr.     Tomato  culture.     Orange  Judd  Co.,  New  York. 

168.  True,  R.  H.     The  significance  of  calcium  in  higher  plants.     Science  55,  No. 

1410.     1922. 

169.  U.  S.  D.  A.  Yearbook.     1920;  621-623.     1922. 

170.  Walker,  Ernest.     Asparagus  and  salt.     Ark.  Bull.  86.     1905. 

171.  Walker,  J.  C.     Seed  treatment  and  rainfall  in  relation  to  the  control  of  cabbage 

black-leg.     U.  S.  D.  A.  Bull.  1029.     1922. 

172.  Walker,  J.  C.  and  Jones,  L.  R.     Relation  of  soil  temperature  and  other  factors 

to  onion  smut.     Jour.  Agr.  Res.  22,  No.  5:  235-2QI.     1921. 

173.  Watson,  J.  R.     Tomato  insects.     Fla.  Bull.  125.     1914. 

174.  Wellington,  J.  W.     The  culture  of  globe  artichoke.     N.  Y.  State  Sta.  Bull. 

435.     1917. 

175.  Werner,  H.  O.     Tomatoes  for  North  Dakota.     A^.  D.  Bull.  111.     1915. 

176.  Whipple,  O.  B.  and  Schermerhorn,  L.  G.     Tomato  tests.     Mont.  Bull.  104, 

1915. 

177.  Whipple,    O.    B.     Report   of   Horticultural  Department.     Mont.  Ann.  Repts. 

1914  to  1919. 

178.  Whipple,     O.    B.     Thinning    experiments   with   potatoes.     Mo7tt.    Bull.    106. 

1915. 

179.  White,    T.    H.,    Norton,   J.    B.   and   Monroe,   J.    F.     Tomatoes:  Varieties, 

disease,  culture.     Md.  Bull.  180.     1914. 

180.  White,  T.  H.     Irish  potato  investigations,  1909-1913.     Md.  Bull.  172.     1913. 

181.  White,   W.   H.     Nicotine  dust  for  control  of  the  striped  cucumber   beetle. 

U.  S.  D.  A.  Cir.  224.     1922. 

182.  Wicks,  W.  H.     Tomato  culture  in  Idaho.     Id.  Bull.  76.     1913. 

183.  Williams,   M.   B.     Spray  irrigation.     U.  S.   D.  A.   Bull.  495.     1917. 

184.  Woods,  Chas.  D.     Potato  studies.     Me.  Bull.  277.     1918. 

185.  Woods,  Chas.  D.     Barn  and  Field  experiments  in  1916.     Me.  Bull.  260.     1917. 

186.  Work,  Paul.     Effects  of  nitrate  of  soda  on  the  nutrition  of  the  tomato.     Proc. 

Am.  Soc.  Hort.  Sci.     1920:  138-146.     1921. 

187.  Wright,  R.  C.  and  Taylor,  G.  F.     Freezing  injury  to  potatoes  when  under- 

cooled.     U.  S.  D.  A.  Bull.  916.     1921. 

188.  Zavitz,  C.  a.     Potatoes.     Ontario  Dept.  Agr.  Bull.  239.     1916. 


LITERATURE  CITED  463 

1S9.  ZiMMERLEY,  H.  H.     Cabbage  strain  tests.     Va.  Tr.  Expt.  Sla.  Bulls.  37  and  38. 
1922. 

190.  ZiMMERLEY,   H.    H.,    Geise,    F.    W.    and    Wiley,   C.   R.     Dusting  vegetable 

crops.     Va.  Tr.  Expt.  Sta.  Bulls.  35  and  36.     1921. 

191.  ZiMMERLEY,  H.  H.  and  Smith,  L.  B.     A  study  of  the  cost  of  spraying  kale. 

Va.  Tr.  Expt.  Sta.  Bull.  30.     1920. 


INDEX 


Acid  phosphate,  39 
Actinomyces  chromogenus,  296 
Albugo  ipomoeae-panduranae,  3 IS 
Allium  ascalonicum,  128,  274 
cepa,  128 

fistulosum,  274 
porrum,  128,  272 
sativum,  128,  273 
schoenoprasum,  128,  274 
Alternaria  solani,  294,  382 
Analysis  of  asparagus,  140-142 
Anasa  tristis,  407 
Anetheum  graveolens,  130 
Anthriscus  cerefolium,  130,  204 
Aphis  brassicae,  164,  219 

gossipii,  407 

pseudobrassicae,  164,  220 

rumicis,  344 
^pium  graveolens,  129 

var  rapaceum,  129,  254 
App,  F.  and  Waller,  A.  G.,  tomatoes,  373, 

374,  379,  386,  387 
Appleman,    C.   O.,   and   Arthur,   J.    M., 

sweet  corn,  451,  452 
Aralia  cor  data,  130,  151 
Arkansas     Experiment     Station,     sweet 

potatoes,  308,  310,  313 
Armoracia  ruslicana,  129,  252 
Arsenate  of  lead,  106 
Arsenicals,  106 
Artichoke,  128,  148-150 

cultivation,  149 

harvesting,  149 

Jerusalem,  (see  Jerusalem  Artichoke). 

planting,  149 

regions,  149 

winter  protection,  149 
Asparagus,  128,  133-146 

analysis,  140,  141,  142 

beetles,  143,  144 

blanching,  139,  140 

bunching,  146 

crates,  146 

cultivation  and  care,  139 

duration  of  plantation,  142 


Asparagus,  fertilizers,  135-137 

grades,  145,  146 

grading,  145,  146 

harvesting,  144 

hillers  illustrated,  139 

hilling,  139 

history,  133,  134 

manures,  135-137 

officinalis,  128,  134 

packages,  146 

packing,  146 

propagation,  134,  135 

roots,  134,  135,  138 

rust,  143 

seed,  135 

soils,  134 

statistics,  133 

taxonomy,  133,  134 

tops,  analysis,  140,  141 
removal,  140,  142 

value  of,  133 

washing,  145 
Associations,  cooperative,  120,  121 
Asterochiton  vaporiorum,  407 
Atriplex  hortensis,  129,  161 
Austin,  C.  F.  and  White,  T.  H.,  celery, 

179 
Autographa  brassica,  219 


B 


Bacillus  phytopthorus,  296 

solanacearum,  381 

tracheiphilus,  405 
Bacterium  compestre,  216 

lachrymans,  406 

phaseoli,  342 
Bailey,  L.  H.,  tomatoes,  372 
Ball,  E.  D.  and  Walter,  E.  V.,  insects,  299 
Ballou,  F.  H.,  potato  experiments,  285 
Barbarea  verna,  205 
Bean,  adsuki,  334 

anthracnose,  241,  342 

aphis,  344 

bacterial  blight,  342 

beetle,  343 

broad,  129,  334,  335 


465 


466 


INDEX 


Bean,  common  or  kidnej-,  129,  334,  335- 
346 
classification,  340,  341 
cultivation,  339 
diseases,  341-343 
fertilizers,  337 
harvesting,  344,  345 
history,  336 
insects,  343,  344 
manures,  337 
planting,  337-339 
soils,  336,  337 

statistics  of  production,  335,  336 
supporting  vines,  340 
taxonomy,  336 
threshing,  345,  346 
varieties,  340,  341 
Bean,  dry  root  rot,  342 
English,  (see  Bean,  Broad). 
fly  or  seed  corn  maggot,  344 
kidney,  (see  Bean,  Common  or  Kidney). 
lady  bug,  344 
leaf  beetle,  343,  344 
lima,  129,  334,  346-349 
culture,  347,  348 
harvesting,  349 
history,  346,  347 
statistics  of  production,  346 
supporting  vines,  348 
taxonomy,  346,  347 
threshing,  349 
varieties,  348,  349 
mosaic,  342 
moth,  334 

multiflora,  129,  334,  346 
mung,  334 
pinto,  338 
rice,  334 
rust,  342 

scarlet  runner,  334,  346 
soy,  (see  Soybean). 
tepary,  129,  349-351 
thrips,  344 
urd,  334 
velvet,  334 

Windsor,  (see  Bean,  Broad). 
Beans,  132,  334-354 

Beattie,  J.  H.,  fertilizer  experiments,  209, 
210,   258,    (see  Thompson,  H.  C.  and 
Beattie,  J.  IL). 
Beattie,  W.  R.,  okra,  456 
Beet,  129,  235-240 

classification  of  varieties,  238 


Beet,  cultivation,  238 

fertilizers,  23,  25,  26,  236,  237 
harvesting,  239,  240 
history,  236 
leaf-miner,  159,  239 
leaf-spot,  239 

manures,  23,  25,  26,  236,  237 
planting,  237,  238 
soils,  236 

statistics  of  production,  235 
storage,  240 
taxonomy,  236 
thinning,  238 
varieties,  238,  239 
webworms,  239 
Betavxdgaris,  129,  136 

var  Cicla,  129 
Black  salsify,  129,  246 
Blair,  F.  J.,  truck  crops,  3 
Blister  beetles,  111 
Bordeaux  mixture,  108 
Botrytis  cinerea,  196 
Bouyoucos,  George,  soil  temperature,  12, 

13 
Boyle,  J.  G.,  tomatoes,  371,  374 
Brassica  alba,  129,  164 
Japonica,  165 
napobrassica,  129,  249 
nigra,  165 

oleraceavsLT  acephala,  129,  162,  163 
botrytis,  129 
capitata,  129,  208 
gemmifera,  129 
pekinensis,  129,  232 
rapa,  129,  246 
Bremia  lactucae,  196 
Britten,  W.  E.,  cucurbit  insects,  406 
Broad  bean,  129,  334,  335 
Broccoli,  129,  228 
Brooks,  W.  P.,  asparagus  fertilizers,  135, 

137 
Bruchus  obtectus,  343 

pisorum,  359 
Brussels  sprouts,  129,  228,  229 
culture,  229 
fertilizers,  229 
harvesting,  229,  230 
illustrated,  229 
packing,  230 
storing,  230 
Bulb  crops,  132,  255-274 


INDEX 


467 


Cabbage,  129,  207-224 

aphis,  219,  220 

bug,  harlequin,  220 

black-leg,  217 

black-rot,  216 

Chinese,  (see  Chinese  Cabbage). 

crates,  221 

cultivation,  212,  213 

diseases,  215-217 

fertilizers,  23,  25,  26,  28-31,  208-210 

grades,  220,  221 

grading,  221 

harvesting,  220 

history,  208 

insects,  217-220 

maggot,  217,  218 

manures,  23,  25,  26,  28-31,  208-210 

packages,  221 

packing,  221 

plant  growing,  210,  211 

planting,  211,  212 

roots,  87 

soils,  208 

statistics,  207,  208 

storage,  222 

house  illustrated,  223 

taxonomy,  208 

types,  213 

varieties,  213-215 

webworm,  219 

worms,  218,  219 

yellows,  216 
Calcium  in  plant  nutrition,  47,  48 
Cance,  A.  E.,  Machmer,  W.  L.  and  Read, 

R.  W.,  onion  costs,  266,  267,  271 
Canning  crops,  5,  6 

methods  of  production,  6 

pack  of,  6 

regions  of  production,  6 
Cantaloupe,  (see  Muskmelon). 
Capsicum  annum,  130,  398,  399 

frutescens,  399 
Carrot,  86,  129,  240-243 

cultivation,  242 

fertilizers,  241 

harvesting,  243 

history,  240 

manures,  241 

planting,  241 

soils,  241 

statistics  of  production,  240 


Carrot,  storing,  243 

taxonomy,  240 

thinning,  242 

varieties,  243 
Carum  Carvi,  130 
Cassida  pallidula,  397 
Cates,  J.  S.  and  Cox,  H.  R.,  corn  cultiva- 
tion, 84,  444 
Cauliflower,  129,  224-228 

blanching,  226 

crates,  228 

cultivation,  226 

diseases,  226 

fertilizers,  225 

grading,  227 

harvesting,  227 

insects,  226 

manures,  225 

packing,  228 

planting,  225,  226 

soils,  224 

statistics  of  production,  224 

storing,  228 
Celeriac,  129,  254 
Celery,  86,  129,  167-188 

blanching,  174-176 

blight,  bacterial,  180 
early,  180 
late,  180 

bunching,  182 

cabbage,  (see  Chinese  Cabbage). 

care  of  plants,  172 

climatic  requirements,  168 

cultivation,  174 

diseases,  179,  180 

fertilizers,  169-171 

grading,  182,  183 

harvesting,  181,  182 

history,  168 

manures,  169-171 

packages,  184 

packing,  183 

pithiness,  179 

plant  growing,  171,  172 

planting,  173,  174 

seed  sowing,  171,  172 

stalk,  premature  development,  178 

soils,  168,  169 

statistics  of  production,  167 

storage,  184-188 

taxonomy,  168 

varieties,  176,  177 

washing,  182 


468 


INDEX 


Cercospora  apii,  179 

beticola,  239 

capsici,  400 
Cerotoma  trifurcata,  343 
Chaerophyllum  bulbosum,  253 
Chard,  161,  162 

culture,  162 

harvesting,  162 

varieties,  162 
Chervil,  204,  205 

turnip  rooted,  253,  254 
Chicory,  202,  203 

culture,  202,  203 

forcing,  203 

harvesting,  203 
Chinese  cabbage,  231-234 

culture,  232 

fertilizers,  232 

harvesting,  233 

illustrated,  234 

storage,  234,  235 

varieties,  233 
Chittenden,  F.  H.,  sweet  potato  weevil, 

319 
Chive,  234 

Ciboul  (Ciboule),  274 
Cichorium  Endivia,  129,  201 

Intyhus,  129,  202 
Citron  melon,  427 
Give,  (see  Chive). 
Clark,  C.  F.,  potatoes,  302 
Classification  of  vegetables,  128-132 
Climate  as  a  factor  in  trucking,  2 
Climatic  factors,  2 
Clover,  crimson,  red,  burr,  34,  35 
Cold  frames,  62,  63 

storage,  125 
Cole  crops,  132,  207-234 
Collards,  129,  165 
ColletotricMim  lagenarium,  405,  428,  429 

lindermdhianum,  341 

nigrum,  400 
Commercial  fertilizers,  37-48 
Companion  cropping,  100,  101 
Compost,  21,  22 
Connor,  S.  D.  and  Abbot,  J.  B.,  onion 

fertilizers,  257 
Cooperative  associations,  120,  121 
Copper-lime  dust,  108,  109 
Corbett,  L.  C,  beans,  338 
Corinndrnm  sativum,  130 
Corn,  borer,  450 

carworni,  449 


Corn,  root  worm,  450 

salad,  205,  206 

sweet,  (see  Siceel  Corn). 
Cornell  Experiment  Station,  potato,  287 
Corrosive  sublimate,  109 
Corticum  vagum,  295 
Cotton,    E.    C,    European    corn  borer, 

450 
Cover  crops,  32-36 

Coville,  F.  v.,  acid  tolerant  crops,  45,  46 
Cowpeas,  34,  35,  334,  353,  354 
Cramhe  maritima,  129,  150 
Cress,  205 

water,  205 
Crioceris  asparagi,  143,  144 

duodecempundata,  143,  144 
Cucumber,  130,  402-411 

angular  leaf  spot,  406 

anthracnose,  405,  406 

bacterial  wUt,  405 

beetles,  407,  408 

cultivation,  405 

diseases,  405,  406 

downy  mUdew,  406 

fertilizers,  403,  404 

flea  beetle,  409 

grading,  410,  411 

harvesting,  410 

history,  403 

insects,  407-410 

manures,  403,  404 

mosaic,  406 

packing,  411,  412 

pickle  worm,  409,  410 

soils,  403 

statistics  of  production,  402 

taxonomy,  403 

varieties,  405 
Cucumis  anguria,  403 

melo,  413,  414 

sativus,  403 
Cucurbita  maxima,  431,  432,  433,  434 

moschata,  431,  432,  433,  434 

pepo,  431,  432,  433,  434 
Cucurbits  or  vine  crops,  402-436 
Cultivating  implements,  88,  89 
Cultivation,  84-89 

benefits,  84,  85 

experiments,  85-87 

time  of,  87 
Cummings,  M.  B.,  seed,  54,  55 

Hubbard  squash,  434,  435 
Cutworms,  110 


INDEX 


409 


Cylas  formacarius,  319 
Cynara  Scolymus,  129,  148 
Cardunculus,  129 


Dacy,  A.  L.,  tomatoes,  3G6 

Damon,  S.  C,  (see  HarticeU,  B.  L.  and 

Damon,  S.  C). 
Dandelion,  129,  1G5,  160 
Daucus  carota,  129,  240 
Diabrotica  vitatta,  406  ' 

Xll-pundata,  407 
Diamond-back  moth,  219 
Diaphania  nitidalis,  407,  409 
Diaporthe  batatatis,  319 
Diplodia  sp.,  429 

tubericola,  319 
Diseases,  chapter  on,  102-111 

general  crop,  109-111 

importance  of,  102,  103 

methods  of  control,  103-105 
Dolichos  lablab,  129,  334 
Downing,  F.  P.,  packages,  115,  184,  200, 

221,  422 
Drainage,  14,  15 
Drills,  seed,  80 
Durst,  C.  E.,  beans,  338,  339 

sweet  potato  fertilizers,  309 
Dust,  copper  lime,  108,  109 
Dusting,  105 

cabbage,  219 

celery,  180 

cucumbers,  407,  408 

spinach,  158 
Duvel,  J.  W.  T.,  longevity  of  seed,  50,  51 


Emerson,  R.  A.,  potato,  288 
Empoasca  mali,  298 
Endive,  201,  202 
Epilachna  boreaiis,  407 

corrupta,  344 
Epiirix  cucumerift,  298,  406 

fuscula,  397 


Fairchild,  D.  G.,  Udo,  151,  152,  153 
Fertilizer  experiments,  23-31   , 

distributors,  42 

Ohio  Experiment  Station,  26-31 

Rhode  Island,  23-26 
Fertilizers,  commercial,  37-48 

advantages,  38 

application,  42 

buying,  42,  43 

home  mixing,  43 

importance,  37,  38 
Fetticus,  (see  Corn  Salad). 
Forcers,  plant,  63,  64 
Formalin,  109 

Freeman,  G.  F.,  tepary  bean,  349,  350 
Fromme,    F.    D.    and   Wingard,    S.    A. 

bean  rust,  343 
Frost  injury,  72,  73 
Fumigation,  105 
Fungicides,  107-109 
Fusarium  batatas,  316 

hyperoxysporum,  316 

lycopersicwn,  381 

niveum,  428 

sp.,  296 


Eggplant,  395-398 
bacterial  wilt,  396 
culture,  395 
flea  beetle,  397 
fruit  rot,  396 
harvesting,  397,  398 
history,  395 
lace  bug,  397 
leaf  spot,  396 

statistics  of  production,  395 
stem  blight,  396 
taxonomy,  395 
tortoise  beetle,  397 
varieties,  396 
wilt,  396 


Garcia,  F.,  beans,  338 

sweet  potato,  306,  313 
Garden  cress,  (see  Cress). 
Garden  plan,  8 

Garden  tractors,  (see  Tractors,  Garden). 
Gardner,    M.   W.   and   Kendrick,    J.  B., 

tomato  mosaic,  383 
Gargrapha  solani,  397 
Garlic,  128,  273,  274 
Geise,  F.  W.,  (see  Zimmerley,  Geise  and 

Willey). 
Georgia  Expt.  Station,  sweet  potatoes, 

310,  311,  313 
Gilmore,  J.  W.,  beans,  340,  341 
CJirasole,  (see  .Jerusalem  ariiehnke). 


470 


INDEX 


Globe  artichoke,  (see  Artichoke). 
Glycine  hispida,  129,  334,  351 
Goff,  E.  S.,  beet  varieties,  238 

carrot  varieties,  243 

pumpkin  varieties,  432 

radish  varieties,  250,  251 

squash  varieties,  432 

turnip  varieties,  248 
Grade  standards,  114,  115 
Grading,  114,  115 
Grasshoppers,  111 
Green,  S.  N.,  endive,  202 
Greenhouses,  58,  65 
Green  manures,  (see  Manures,  Green). 
Greens,  (see  Potherbs  or  Greens). 
Groth,  B.  H.  A.,  sweet  potatoes,  314 
Growing  plants,  chapter  on,  65-77 
Guinea  squash,  (see  Eggplant). 
Gumbo,  (see  Okra). 


Hardening  plants,  71-77 

definition,  71 

effects  of,  72-77 

experiments,  72-77 

methods,  71 
Harlequin  cabbage  bug,  220 
Harrington,  H.  H.,  sweet  potato  analyses, 

327 
Harrowing,  16,  17 
Harter,  L.  L.,  sweet  potato  diseases,  316 

and  Jones,  L.  R.,  cabbage  diseases,  215, 
216 
Hartwell,  B.  L.,  fertilizers,  97,  98 

and  Crandall,  F.  K.,  23-36 

and  Damon,  S.  C.,  45,  46 
Harvesting,  112-114 
Harvey,  R.  B.,  hardening  plants,  72,  73, 

77 
Hasselbring,  H.  H.  and  Hawkins,  L.  A., 

sweet  potatoes,  327-329 
Harshberger,  J.  W.,  corn,  440 
Helianthus  tuberosus,  129,  150 
Heliothis  obsoleta,  449 
Heliothrips  fasciatus,  344 
Hendry,  G.  W.,  beans,  339 
Heterodera  radicicola,  215,  428 
Hibiscus  esculentiwi,  129,  454 

sabdariffa,  129 
Hoeing,  89 
Home  garden,  7,  S 


Horse-radish,  129,  252,  253 

cultivation,  253 

fertilizers,  252 

harvesting,  253 

manures,  252 

trimming  roots,  253 
Hotbeds,  58-62 

covers,  62 

construction  of,  59,  60 

flue-heated,  61 

frame,  59,  60 

location  of,  59 

manure-heated,  61 

steam-heated,  62 

use  of,  58,  59 
Husk  tomato,  401 


Implements,  88,  89 
Insecticides,  106,  107 
Insects,  102-111 

general  crop,  109,  110 

importance  of,  102,  103 

methods  of  control,  103,  105 
Intercropping,  100,  101 
Ipomoea  batatis,  130,  306 
Irish,  H.  C.,  beans,  334,  335,  336 

peppers,  399 
Iron,   importance  of,  in  plant  nutrition, 

41 
Irrigation,  90-95 

benefits  of,  90 

methods  of,  90 

spray,  92-95 

subirrigation,  91,  92 


Jagger,  I.  C.,  celery  disease,  180 

lettuce  mosaic,  197 
Jarvis,  C.  D.,  beans,  347 
Jerusalem  artichoke,  129,  150 


Kale,  129,  162-164 
cultivation,  164 
fertilizers,  163 
harvesting,  164 
planting,  163,  164 
soils,  163 
spraying,  164 
varieties,  164 


INDEX 


471 


Kinney,  L.  F.,  spinach  varieties,    157, 

158 
Kohler,  A.  R.,  potatoes,  300 
Koh!-rabi,  230,  231 

culture,  230 

fertilizers,  230,  231 

harvesting,  231 

varieties,  231 
Kraus,  E.  J.  and  Kraybill,  H.  R.,  tomato, 

36S,  369,  370,  384 
Kraybill,  II.  R.,  (see  Kraus  and  Kraybill). 


Lachnosterna  arcuata,  110,  299 
Lambs  lettuce,  (see  Corn  Salad). 
Lactuca  saliva,  129,  189 

scariola,  189 
Leek,  128,  272,  273 
Lemon  cucumber,  (see  Mango  Melon). 
Lepidium  sativum,  129,  205 
Leptinotarsa  dece^nlinmta,  297 
Lettuce,  129,  188-201 

anthracnose,  197 

bottom-rot,  196 

crates,  200 

cultivation,  191,  192 

diseases,  196,  197 

drop,  196 

fertilizers,  189,  190 

grading,  199,  200 

gray  mold,  196,  197 

handling  experiments,  198,  199 

harvesting,  197-199 

history,  189 

insects,  197 

manures,  189,  190 

mildew,  197 

packages,  200 

packing,  200 

plant  growing,  190 

planting,  191 

soils,  189 

statistics  of  production,  188 

taxonomy,  189 

tip-burn,  197 

varieties,  193,  194,  195 
Levisticum  officinale,  130 
Lima  beans,  (see  Bean,  Lima). 
Lime,  44-48 

application  of,  48 

effects  of,  46 

forms,  46 


Lime,  use  of,  44-46 

value  of,  44-46 
Lloyd,  J.  W.,  muskmelons,  414 

and  Brooks,  L  S.,  tomatoes,  276 

onion  experiments,  259,  260,  261 
Longevity  of  seeds,  50-52 
Louisiana  Expt.  Sta.,  sweet  potatoes,  312 
Lycopersicum  esculentum,  130,  365 

pimpinellifolium,  130,  305 

pyriforme,  130,  365 

M 

Macrosiphum  solanifolii,  298 
Magnesium  in  plant  nutrition,  40,  41 
Mango  melon,  414 
Manure,  18-36 

applying,  22,  23 

composition  of,  19 

composting,  21,  22 

experiments,  23-31 

fresh  vs.  rotted,  20,  21 

green,  32-36 
legume,  34,  35 
non-legume,  35,  36 
plowing  under,  36 
selection  of  crop,  34-36 
value  of,  32-34 

importance  of,  18,  19 
Market  gardening,  defined,  4 

development  of  in  U.  S.,  4,  5 

selecting  location  for,  4 
Marketing,  chapter  on,  112-121 
Marking  rows,  79 
Marssonia  panattoniana,  196 
Martynia,  132,  456 

Louisiana,  456 

proboscidea,  456 
Masters  planter,  illustrated,  82 
McClintock,    J.    A.    and    Smith,    L.    B., 

spinach  mosaic,  158 
McCue,     C.     A.    and    Pelton,     W.     C, 

tomatoes,  366 
McKay,  A.  W.,  Fischer,  G.  L.  and  Nelson, 
A.  E.,  muskmelon  handling,  421,  423 
Melitta  satyriniformis,  406 
Melon  aphis,  406,  409 

apple,  (see  Mango  Melon). 

citron,  427 

musk,  (see  Muskmelon). 

preserving,  (see  Melon,  Citron). 

stock,  (see  Melon,  Citron). 

water,  (see  Watermelon). 
Microsiphum  cucurbitae,  407 


472 


INDEX 


Millar,  C.  E.,  corn  roots,  442,  443 
Monilochaetes  infuscans,  317 
Morse,  C.  C.  &  Co.,  lettuce  illustrations, 
193,  194,  195 

L.  L.,  lettuce,  192 
Morse,  F.  W.,  asparagus,  135,  130,  140- 

142 
Morse,  W.  J.,  cowpeas,  353 

soybeans,  351,  352 
Mosier,  J.  G.  and  Gustafson,  A.  F.,  corn- 
cultivation,  444,  445 
Mountain  spinach,  (see  Orach),  161 
Muck  soils,  11-14 

characteristics  of,  11 

distribution  of,  14 

frost  injury  on,  12,  13 

importance  of,  14 
Munson,  W.  M.,  tomatoes,  372 
Murgantia  histrionica,  220 
Muskmelon,  130,  411-423 

cultivation,  416 

diseases,  420 

fertilizers,  414,  415 

grading,  421,  422 

harvesting,  420,  421 

history,  413 

insects,  420 

manures,  414,  415 

packages,  422,  423 

packing,  422,  423 

plant  growing,  415,  416 

planting,  416 

soils,  414 

statistics  of  prodviction,  412,  413 

taxonomy,  413,  414 

varieties,  416-420 

variety  classification,  417 

wrapping,  423 
Mustard,  129,  164,  165 
Myers,  C.  E.,  cabbage,  53,  211,  212,  213 
Myzus  persicae,  158 

N 

Newman,  J.  S.  Jerusalem  artichoke,  150 
New  Zealand  spinach,  160,  161 

culture,  160,  161 

harvesting,  161 
Nicotine  sulphate,  107 
Nitrogen,  forms  of,  38,  39 

value  and  use  of,  38,  39 
Norton,  L.  J.,  canning  crops,  359,  361, 

385,  386,  388,  389 
Novelties,  49,  50 


O 


Ohio  Experiment  Station,  fertilizers,  26- 

31,  208,  209 
Okra,  132,  454-456 

culture,  454,  455 

harvesting,  455 

history,  454 

statistics  of  production,  454 

taxonomy,  454 

uses  of,  455 

varieties,  455 
Olericulture  defined,  1 
Olney,  A.  J.,  tomatoes,  372,  377 
Onion,  128,  255-273 

Bermuda,  259 

cleaning,  268,  269 

cost  of  growing,  266,  267 
of  storing,  270 

Creole,  259 

cultivation,  262 

curing,  268 

Denia,  259 

experiments,  259,  260 

fertilizers,  256,  258 

grading,  268,  269 

harvesting,  267,  268 

history,  256 

maggot,  265,  266 

manures,  256-258 

mildew,  265 

packing,  269,  270 

planting,  260,  261 

returns,  266,  267 

smut,  263-265 

seed,  259 

sets,  259,  272 

soils,  256 

statistics,  of  production,  255 

storage,  270-272 

taxonomj',  256 

thinning,  261 

thrips,  265 

varieties,  262,  263 

weeding,  263 

Welch,  (see  Ciboul). 

yields,  266 
Orach,  161 

Orange  melon,  (see  Mango  Melon). 
Orton,  W.  A.,  bean  diseases,  341 

watermelon  diseases,  427,  429 
Osborne,  Mrs.  Fred,  Chinese  cabbage,  234 
Ozonium  omnivorum,  318 


INDEX 


473 


Packages,  115-118 

function  of,  115 

illustrated,  116,  117 

kinds  of,  115,  116 
Packing  vegetables,  118,  119 
Paris  green,  106 
Parrot,  P.  J.,  cabbage  aphis,  219,  220 

dusting,  107 
Parsley,  204 
Parsnip,  243-245 

cultivation,  244,  245 

fertilizers,  244 

harvesting,  245 

history,  244 

manures,  244 

planting,  244 

soils,  244 

statistics  of  production,  244 

storage,  245 

taxonomy,  244 

varieties,  245 
Pasiinaca  sativa,  129,  243 
Patch,  Edith  F.,  potato  aphis,  299 
Peas,  354-362 

aphis,  358 

cost  of  production,  362 

cultivation,  357 

diseases,  358 

fertilizers,  355 

harvesting,  361 

history,  354 

importance,  354 

inocvilation,  355,  356 

manures,  356 

packing,  362 

planting,  356 

soils,  355 

supporting  vines,  357 

taxonomj^  354 

varieties,  357,  358 

weevil,  359 
Peat  soils,  (see  Mucks  and  Peats). 
Pegomyia  hyoscyami,  159 
Pennsylvania  Expt.  Station,  138 
Peppers,  130,  398-401 

culture,  399,  400 

diseases,  400 

harvesting,  400,  401 

history,  398,  399 

insects,  400 

pimento,  400 


Peppers,  pimienta,  400 

Spanish,  400 

statistics  of  production,  398 

taxonomy,  398,  399 

varieties,  400 
Perennial  crops,  131,  133-153 
Pero7iospora  schleideniana,  265 
Petroselinum  hortense,  129,  204 
Phaseolus  acutifolius,  129,  334,  349 

coccineus,  129,  334 

lunatus,  129,  334 

vmltiflorus,  129,  334 

vulgaris,  129,  334-335 
Phoma  Lingam,  217 
Phomopsis  vexans,  396 
Phorbia  brassicae,  217 

ceparum,  265 

fusciceps,  265,  344 
Phosphorus,  value  and  use  of,  39 
Phyllostida  batatas,  318 
Physalis  pubescens,  401 
Phytophthora  infestans,  295,  382 
Pieters,  A.  J.,  (see  Piper  and  Pieters). 
Piper,   C.   V.   and  Pieters,   A.   J.,   green 

manures,  32,  33 
Pisum  arvense,  354 

sativum,  129,  354 
Plant  forcers,  63,  64 
Planter,  hand,  illustrated,  82 
Planting,  chapter  on,  78-83 

depth  of,  79 

methods  of,  79,  80 

rate  of,  80 

time  of,  78 
Plasmodiophora  brassicae,  215 
Plasmopora  cubensis,  406 
Plenodomus  destruens,  317 
Plowing,  15,  16 
Plumb,  C.  S.,  corn,  440 
Polygonaceac,  130,  147 
Pontia  protodice,  219 

rapae,  218 
Potash,  use  and  value  of,  39,  40 
Potato,  130,  275-304 

aphis,  298,  299 

beetle,  297,  298 

black-leg,  296 

breeding,  303,  304 

climatic  requirements,  278 

consumption,  276 

cultivation,  288 

curly  dwarf,  296,  297 

disease  classification,  289,  292 


474 


INDEX 


Potato,  diseases,  293-297 

fertilizers.  280-282 

flea-beetle,  298 

grades,  301,  302 

grading,  801,  302 

groups,  289-292 

harvesting,  299-301 

history,  276,  277 

improvement,  303,  304 

insects,  297-299 

late  blight,  295 

leaf-hopper,  298 

leaf-roll,  297 

manures,  280-282 

marketing,  303 

mosaic,  296,  297 

mulching,  278,  288 

packing,  303 

planting,  286-288 

rhizoctoniose,  295,  296 

rotations,  279 

scab,  296 

seed,  282-286 

selection,  303,  304 

soils,  278-280 

statistics  of  production,  275,  276 

storing,  302,  303 

sweet,  (see  Sweet  Potato). 

taxonomy,  276,  277 

varietie-s,  288,  289 

variety  classification,  289-292 

wilt,  296 
Potherbs  or  greens,  131,  154-166 
Price,  R.  H.,  sweet  potatoes,  314 
Pritchard,  F.  J.,  tomato  diseases,  381 
Proboscidea  Louisiana,  (see  Martynia). 
Protein  precipitation,  73 
Pseudomonas  apii,  179 
Puccinia  asparagi,  143 
Pumpkin  and  squash,  130,  431-436 
classification,  432 
culture,  433 
diseases,  435 
harvesting,  435 
insects,  435 
origin,  431 

statistics  of  production,  431 
storage,  435,  436 
taxonomy,  431 
varieties,  433,  434 
Pyrausuia  nubilalis,  449 


Radish,  129,  249-252 

fertilizers,  249,  250 

harvesting,  251,  252 

insects,  251 

maggot,  251 

manures,  249,  250 

planting,  250 

soils,  249 

statistics  of  production,  249 

varieties,  250,  251 
Ramsey,  H.  J.  and  Markell,  E.  L.,  lettuce 

handling,  198,  199 
Ranc,  F.  W.,  melon  varieties,  416,  425 
Raphanus  satirus,  129,  249 
R(>(1  spider,  111 
Kheum  rhaponticum,  130,  417 
Rhizoctonia  solani,  196 
Rhode    Island    Expt.   Sta.   experiments, 

23-26,  189,  190,  209,  237 
Rhubarb,  140-148 

cultivation,  148 

fertilizers,  147 

harve.^ting,  148 

history,  147 

manures,  147 

planting,  147 

soils,  147 

taxonomy,  147 
Ridlej',  V.  W.,  spinach  handling,  160 
Rolfs,  P.  H.,  tomato  diseases,  383 
Root  crops,  132,  235-254 
Roots,  extent  and  distribution,  86,  87 
Roripa  nasturtiuvi-aquaticum,  129,  203 
Rosa,  J.  T.  Jr.,  tomatoes,  366,  367,  373, 
377 

hardening  studies,  71,  73-77 
Rotation,  96-100 

advantages  of,  96 

effects  on  yield,  97,  98 

order  of,  90 

relation  to  diseases,  96,  97 
to  injurious  substances,  99 
to  insects,  90,  97 
to  mineral  nutrients,  97-99 
Rust,  asparagus,  (sec  Asparagus  Rust). 
Rutabaga,  129,  249 
Rye  as  green-manure  crop,  35,  36 


Salad  chervil,  (see  Chervil). 
Salad  crops,  131,  167-206 


INDEX 


475 


Salsify,  129,  245-246 

black,  (see  Black  Salsify). 

culture,  246 

harvesting,  246 

Spanish,  (see  Span'ish  Snlsiftj). 
Salt  on  asparagus,  137 
Sando,  C.  E.,  tomatoes,  390-393 
Sansten,  E.  P.  and  White,  T.  H.,  celery, 

179 
Sclerotinia  libertiana,  179,  196 

minor,  196 
Sclerotimn  hataticola,  319 

rolfsii,  430 
Schermerhorn,  L.  G.  and  Nissley,  C.  H., 

cabbage  maggot,  218 
Scolymus  hispanicus,  129,  246 
Scorzonera,  Mspanicn,  129,  246 
Sea-kale,  150,  151 
Seed-bed,  65-67 

care  of,  66 

controlHng  temperature  in,  67 

sowing  seed  in,  65,  66 

ventilation,  67 

watering,  66,  67 
Seed  drills,  79,  80 

growing,  55-57 

size  of  on  yield,  54,  55 

sowing,  65,  66 

testing,  52 
Seeds,  49-57 

buying,  49 

depth  of  planting,  79 

longevity  of,  50-52 

effects  of  climate  on,  50,  51 
experiments  on,  50,  51 

methods  of  planting,  79,  80 

rate  of  planting,  80 
Selling  vegetables,  119 
Septoria  hataticola,  318 

lycopersici,  381 

petroselinum,  179 
Shallot,  128,  274 
Shaw,  G.  W.  and  Sherwin,  M.  E.,  lima 

beans,  348,  349 
Sherbakoff,     C.     D.,     tomato    diseases, 

381 
Shiver,  F.  S.,  sweet  potatoes,  327 
Shoemaker,  D.  N.,  pea  seed,  358 
Sium  sisarum,  254 
Skirret,  254 

Sminthurus  hortensis,  406 
Smith,  J.  W.,  climate,  278 

L.  B.,  spinach  aphis,  158,  159 


Soil  as  a  factor  in  trucking,  3 

moisture,  85,  86 

preparation,  14-17 

sterilization,  104,  105 
Soils,  10-14 

clay  loam,  11 

muck  and  peat,  11-14 

sandy,  10 

sandy  loam,  10,  11 

silt,  14 
Soja  Max,  334,  335 
Solanaceous  fruits,  132,  363-401 
Solan  urn  coinmersonii,  277 

jaincsii,  277 

niaglia,  277 

nielongena,  130,  395 

tuberosum,  130,  277 
Soybean,  35,  129,  334,  351,  352 

culture,  352 

uses,  351,  352 
Spanish  salsify,  129,  246 
Spencer,  A.  P.,  subirrigation,  91 
Sphaeronema  fimbriatum,  317 
Spinach,  128,  154-160 

aphis,  158 

blight  or  mosaic,  158 

carlo.t  shipments,  155 

classification,  157,  158 

cultivation,  157 

cultivator,  illustrated,  157 

cutter  illustrated,  159 

fertilizers,  155,  156 

harvesting,  159 

history,  155 

leaf  miner,  159 

manures,  155,  156 

marketing,  160 

mosaic,  158 

New  Zealand,  160 

planting,  156 

shipping,  160 

soils,  155 

taxonomy,  155 

thinning,  156 

varieties,  157,  158 

washing,  160 
Spinacia  oleracia,  128 
Spotting  board,  illustrated,  70 
Spray  irrigation,  92-95 

installing,  93-95 

water  required  for,  92,  93 
Spraying,  105 
Spray  pumps,  106 


476 


INDEX 


Squash,  (see  Pumpkin  and  Squash). 
bug,  408 

Hubbard,  434,  435 
improvement  of,  433,  434 
lady  beetle,  406,  409 
vine  borer,  40G,  409 
Starnes,  H.  N.,  sweet  i)()tatoes,  308,  309, 

313 
Sterilization,  soil,  104,  105 
Stevens,  N.  E.  and  Higgins,  C.  H.,  sweet 

corn,  439,  451 
Stewart,  F.  C.  and   Mix,   A.  J.,  potato 

storage,  302,  303 
Stizolobiuni  spp.,  334 
Stone,  J.  L.,  potatoes,  288 
Storage  of  vegetables,  chapter  on,   122- 
127 
cellars,  123,  124 
cold,  125 
effects  on  industry,  120 

on  prices,  120,  127 
field,  122,  123 
houses,  124,  126 

above  ground,  124,  125 
location  of,  125,  126 
requirements,  122 
Strain  testing,  52-54 
Strahan,  J.  L.,  storage,  124 
Straughn,  M.  N.,  sweet  corn,  438,  439 
and  Church,  C.  G.,  sweet  corn,  439 
Stuart,  Wm.,  potatoes,  287,  289-292 

squash  storage,  435,  436 
Stuckey,  H.  P.,  sweet  potatoes,  377,  382 
tomatoes,  377,  382 
and  McClintock,  J.  A.,  peppers,  400 
Subirrigation,  91,  92 
Succession  cropping,  100 
Sulphur  in  plant  nutrition,  40 
Sweet  corn,  128,  437-454 

climatic  requirements,  438,  439 

cultivation,  444,  445 

fertilizers,  441,  442 

grading,  453,  454 

harvesting,  451-453 

liistory,  439,  440 

insects,  449,  450 

manures,  441,  442 

packing  for  nuirket,  453,  454 

planting,  443,  444 

smut,  450,  451 

soils,  440,  441 

statistics  of  ])n)ducti()n,  437,  438 

suckering,  445-447 


Sweet  corn,  taxonomy,  439,  440 

varieties,  447-449 
Sweet  potato,  130,  304-333 
black  rot,  317 

Java,  319 
changes  during  storage,  327 
charcoal-rot,  319 
climatic  requirements,  307,  308 
cultivation,  312,  313 
curing,  325 
diseases,  316-319 
dry-rot,  319 
fertilizers,  308,  309 
foot-rot,  317 
grades,  321,  322 
grading,  321,  322 
luirvesting,  320,  321 
history,  306 

houses,  (see  Storage  Hou.'ies). 
leaf-blight,  318 

spot,  318 
manures,  308,  309 
packing,  322,  323 
plant  growing,  310,  311 
planting,  311,  312 
propagation,  309,  310 
ring-rot,  319 

ridge  vs.  level  culture,  307,  308 
root-rot,  318 
scurf,  317,  318 
shps,  309,  310,  311 
soft-rot,  319 
soils,  307,  308 

statistics  of  production,  305,  306 
stem-rot,  316,  317 
storage,  323-333 

experiments,  323,  324,  325,  326,  327 

houses,  329,  333 

pits,  332 

temperature,  324,  325 
taxonomy,  306 
varieties,  314-316 
variety  classification,  314-316 
vine  cuttings,  309,  310,  311 
weevil,  319,  320 
white  rust,  318 
Swiss  chard,  (see  Chard). 


Taber,  R.  F.,  cost  of  production  of  toi 

toes,  387 
Tanaceium.  vulgare,  129 


INDEX 


477 


Taraxacum  officinalis,  129,  165 
Tepary  bean,  (see  Bean,  Tepary). 
Tctragonium  expa^isa,  129,  160 
Thinning,  81 

Thompson,  H.  C,  celery  storage,  186-188 
and  Beattie,  J.  H.,  sweet  potatoes,  314, 

316,  324-333 
sweet  corn  suckering,  444,  445 
Thorne,    C.    E.,    fertihzer    experiments, 

26-31,  441,  442 
Thrips  tabaci,  265 

Tiebout,  G.  L.,  cauliflower,  225,  226 
Tobacco  preparations,  107 
Tomato,  130,  363-395 
bacterial  wilt,  381 
blight,  382 

blossom-end  rot,  382,  383 
cost  of  production,  3S5-390 
cultivation,  373,  374 
diseases,  380-383 
dropping  blossoms,  383,  384 
fertilizers,  366,  367 
fruit  worm,  383 
fusarium  wilt,  381 
grades,  393,  394 
grading,  393,  394 
harvesting,  390-393 
history,  364 
hornworms,  383 
husk,  (see  Husk  Tomato). 
leaf-blight,  382 

spot,  381,  382 
mosaic,  383 
nutrition,  367-370 
packing,  394,  395 
plant  growing,  370-372 
planting,  372,  373 
pruning,  374-378 
ripening,  390-393 
soils,  365,  366 
taxonomy,  365 
training,  374-378 
varieties,  378-380 
wilt,  381 
Tractors,  garden,  88,  89 
Tracy,  W.  W.  Jr.,  lettuce,  192,  193 

W.  W.  Sr.,  tomato,  365 
Tragopogon  porrifolius,  129,  245 
Transplanting,  67-71,  81-83 
advantages  of,  67-69 
effects  of,  68,  69 
experiments,  68,  69 
methods  of,  70,  71 


Transportation  of  vegetables,  2,  1 19 
Truck  gardening,  defined,  1,  2 

location,  2 

regions  of  U.  S.,  3,  4 
True,  R.  H.,  calcium,  47,  48 
Turnip,  129,  246-249 

aphis,  220 

cultivation,  248 

diseases,  248 

fertilizers,  247 

harvesting,  248,  249 

history,  247 

insects,  248 

planting,  247,  248 

-rooted  chervil,  253,  254 

soils,  247 

taxonomy,  247 

varieties,  248 

U 

Udo,  blanching,  152 

culture,  151,  152 

preparation  for  table,  152,  153 
Urocystis,  cepulae,  263 
Urom,yces  appendiculatus,  342 
U.  S.  grades  for  asparagus,  145,  146 

cabbage,  221 

cauliflower,  227,  228 

celery,  182,  183 

cucumbers,  410,  411 

lettuce,  199,  200 

onions,  268,  269 

potatoes,  301,  302 

sweet  potatoes,  321,  322 

tomatoes,  393,  394 
Ustilago  zeae,  450 


Valerianella  olitoria,  205 
Value  of  vegetables,  1 
Variety  testing,  52-54 
Vegetable  forcing,  7 

gardening,  1-9 

orange,  (see  Mango  Melon). 

oyster,  (see  Salsify). 
Vegetables,  value  of,  1 
Verticillium  alboatrum,  396 
Vetch  as  green  manure,  35 
Viciafaba,  129,  334 
Vigna  sinensis,  129,  334,  353 
Vine  crops,  (see  Cucurbits). 
Virginia  Truck  Expt.  Sta.,  53,  54,  106, 
107,  163,  164 


478 


INDEX 


W 

Walker,  Ernest,  asparagus,  137 

J.  C,  cabbage  disease,  217 

J.  C.  and  Jones,  L.   R.,  onion  smut, 

263-265 

Water  cress,  129,  205 

Watering  plants,  83 

Watermelon,  423-431 

anthracnose,  428,  429 

blossom-end  rot,  430 

cultivation,  425 

diseases,  427-430 
classified,  428 

ground  rot,  430 

handling,  431 

harvesting,  430,  431 

history,  424 

insects,  430 

origin,  424 

planting,  424,  425 

root-knot,  428 

soils,  424 

statistics  of  production,  423,  424 

stem-end  rot,  429 

varieties,  425-427 

wilt,  428 
Watson,  J.  R.,  tomato  insects,  384 


Weeding,  89 

Welch  onion,  274 

Werner,  H.  O.,  tomatoes,  370 

Whipple,  O.  B.,  celery,  178,  179 

and   Schermcrhorn,   L.    G.,    tomatoes, 
375 
White  grubs,  110,  299 
White,  T.  H.,  potatoes,  278 

(see  Austin,   C.  F.   and  White,  T.  H.; 

Snndsten,  E.  P.  and  While,  T.  H.). 
White,  W.  H.,  nicotine  dust,  408 
Wicks,  W.  H.,  tomatoes,  375,  377 
Williams,  M.  B.,  irrigation,  92-95 
Wireworms,  110,  299 
Witloff  chicory,  (sec  Chicory). 
Woods,  Chas.  D.,  potato  fertilizers,  281 
Work,  Paul,  celery  varieties,  176,  177 

tomato  nutrition,  369,  370 


Zavitz,  C.  A.,  potatoes,  283,  285 
Zea  Mais,  128,  440 

saccharata,  440 
Zimmerley,  H.  H.,  strain  testing,  53,  54 

Geise,    F.    W.    and    Willey,     C.    R., 
dusting,  106,  107 

and  Smith,  L.  B.,  spraying  kale,  164 


.\^ 


